Tuesday, April 10, 2012
豬
「牛肉跟豬有瘦肉精，雞鴨有生長激素，魚有重金屬，菜有農藥，現在什麼都不能吃，是不是只能吃羊呢?」有一天去吃火鍋，朋友突然問我。
最近因為"瘦肉精"事件而搞得人心惶惶。
但是它到底是什麼? 為什麼全世界只有20多個國家開放? 什麼都有"毒"，那還有什麼能吃?
瘦肉精，是為乙型受體素(beta-adrenergic agonists)之畜牧業俗稱，其中主要是為與人體自身合成的腎上腺素與正向腎上腺素相似。
其中以代謝速率來看，有長效型及短效型。長時間代謝的例子有 Clenbuterol，而短時間代謝的例子有Salbutamol, Ractopamine...等。
若以用途來看，可分為非食用性動物用藥(用以舒緩與治療呼吸道狹窄症狀，安胎等)以及一般動物飼料添加物(如Ractopamine及Zilpaterol)
若是以人類食用肉類後中毒的案例來說，主要集中於歐洲國家。(美國，中國，東亞部份等國家也有案例)
副作用主要集中發作於中樞神經，心血管，以及肌肉組織及血糖、血壓值等等。
大約的背景介紹完之後，來看看目前最"火紅"的Ractopamine(中文好像是翻譯成"萊克多巴胺"?)
此款化合物原本是某藥廠研發出的藥物。其主要功能於治療及舒緩人類氣管狹窄症，但是因為在臨床試驗階段就發現此款藥物的治癒能力不佳，該藥廠便放棄此藥的研發。
一段時間後，"Rac"又被拿出來研究。主要以小鼠的研究來說，研究人員因為發現到了當小鼠使用此藥物之後，肌肉組織相對的比較多。爾後，許多試驗便開始進行。
經過實驗結果得知，使用此款藥物的動物瘦體組織的數量其實是沒有顯著的改變的，但是其肌肉纖維的大小與對照組相比有著顯著的增加。
在肉品的美觀程度上來說，實驗組的"賣相"遠高於對照組。
美觀程度往往就是商機，因此，嗅到商機的人開始研究其肉品的毒性啦!
經過研究證明，此款藥品對食用性動物的肉品來說是不具有基因毒性(直接或間接殺傷或影響、改變DNA，對癌細胞及正常細胞皆有其影響力)，致癌性，以低劑量來說是不具有生殖以及心臟毒性的。(至於"低劑量"是多低，就會需要去翻那些落落長的研究報告啦。)因此，FDA通過此藥物對於動物性的一些使用上是不需要有獸醫/藥師的處方。
因應此法案的通過，最大殘留數據便因應而生。(maximum residue limit "MRL")而其中的三個分級:NOEL(no observed effect level) → ADI(accetable dietary intake) → MRL
以正向評定來說，的確，有約20多個國家是完全禁止國內及進口肉品含有其受體素的殘留的。但是以負向評定來說，也有一些國家是採取開放的狀態。
(順帶一提，其中有趣的就是日本的"雙軌制"。雖全面禁止日本國內的使用，但對於進口肉品卻以該出口國的標準為查驗標準。這種"雙軌制"應該也只有在市場開放、標示明確、對品質及信譽極度吹毛求疵的民族才做得到吧!?)
但是留心於數字，聯合國卻有60幾個國家是沒有發表聲明以及明令的。
為什麼呢?
因為對他們來說也許這根本不是政府機關會考量的議題。
為什麼呢?
其中一點就是，當藥廠要開發進駐於某個國家的時候，他會需要通過該國的"衛生署"或相等機構的查驗登記才行。而查登的手續繁複，書面資料及研究數據都需要詳細完整，才有可能會通過。而主要的"研究數據"即是該藥物對使用目標物(牲畜或人等等的"標的物")的影響及危害評估。
這時候你又會問，那不是就會是政府機關決定要不要通過了嗎?那你還說這不一定就是政府機關的考量議題?
好，在藥廠決定要不要到這個國家開發之前，就會先評估其市場價值。
他可以決定不要來這個國家呀!
如回教國家!他們又不吃豬肉，為什麼要買"給豬用的藥，讓豬肉變好看?"???
而這只是其中一個"為什麼有這麼多的國家沒有明訂其藥物法規"的原因。
而以Clembuterol來說，在歐盟國家是明令禁止的。其原因是因為過去有許多的歐盟國發生許多中毒事件。
但是無人死亡。
而此禁藥用途也多在於人體肌肉成長。(如健美先生的超大塊肌肉)其中不乏運動選手因為被檢驗出攝取了此禁藥而從此被禁賽的案例。
Salbutamol則是人類常用的支氣管擴張藥物。
在歐盟國家是禁止一切人工合成的生長促進劑的。而在中國，則是禁止了Rac的使用。新加坡因為本身缺乏豬隻畜產業，主要肉品是以進口為主，因此並沒有訂定MRL，而是採納出口國的標準。(跟日本很像)
先這樣好了....打字打得有點累...(你從倒數第五行就發現了嗎?) :P
Tuesday, April 3, 2012
History: Development of Maya
Development of Maya
Maya, the earliest society to rise after the disappearance of Olmescs, was originated in the third century B.C.E. in the Guatemalan highlands, then moved to the Mesoamerican lowlands after fourth century C.E. The Maya had great accomplishments on social society structure and civilization, advanced astronomy development, accurate calculation and matured mathematical logic concepts.
Due to the infertile land, the Mayas developed terraces to trap nutrients to retain the productivity of the land, thus increasing the agricultural efficiency of maize and cotton. Cotton was a highly prized product in both society and for trade in the Mesoamerica region. Moreover, cacao was another wealth gathering source. Cacao, the source of chocolate, was consumed by the nobilities was used as money.
Over six hundred years, the Maya built many large pyramids, palaces, temples, and other settlements in the lowlands, which attracted more people and as a result established cities. Tikal, for example, was the most important Maya political center in this time period; it had gathered huge wealth and reached approximately forty thousand in population during 600 to 800 C.E. Another example is “The Temple of the Giant Jaguar, a stepped pyramid rising sharply to a height of 47 meters (154 feet), which dominated the skyline and represented Tikal’s control over the surrounding region, and had a population of about five hundred thousand” (Bentley, 2010, 71). Another way of gathering the wealth of Maya society was by warfare. The purpose of the warfare was not to kill the enemy or destroy their societies as other groups did, but rather to capture the people for slavery or as victims to sacrifice to the Maya gods. Moreover, as Fink mentioned, “there is no simple way to decipher the impact of powerful forces of war, political mobilization…” (Fink, 2003, 47).
Social status played a big role in Maya society. The lowest social level was made up by slaves and peasants to provide the physical labor needed. The professional architects and sculptors built buildings while the artisans produced materials for household uses as well as trading goods. The nobility organized military forces and participated in religious rituals while the merchants served as traders and ambassadors to other societies. The highest level was the king and the priests who maintained elaborate calendars and studied writing, astronomy, and mathematics.
Mathematically, not only the Mayans were able to calculate the calendar dates, but also they were able to adopt the “zero” concept into their calculation which enabled them to calculate large digit numbers. Moreover, they were able to understand the planet cycles and the eclipses of the sun and the moon; as a result calendars were then established. There were 365 days in Maya calendar, which was calculated by the priest, and was only about half a second different than the modern astronomers calculations. Such accuracy served as evidence of their advanced development of astronomy and as mathematicians. Another calendar the Maya had was the religious calendar which contained 260 days per year, divided time into twenty months with 13 days each, and served as the daily affairs reminder. The two calendars overlapped each other to indicate what people should accomplish each day. It takes fifty-two years for the two calendars to overlap to the same combination day, therefore, the restarting day had great significance for the Mayas.
Mayan writings contained ideographic and syllable symbols which indicated the advanced civilization as well as the maturity of the logical thought process. However, when the Spanish conquerors and missionaries arrived in the sixteenth century, they destroyed most of the books and other civilization evidences. Though only four books exist today, the impact of the astonishing development of literacy, mathematic, and astronomy are still playing an important role in today’s society. The reason for decline of the ancient Mayan society was unclear as Culbert mentioned that “… the theories… seems that many are or were simple straw-man theories.” (Culbert, 1973, 33).
Exploration and settlement of Oceania
More than 60,000 years ago, humans migrated to Australia and New Guinea by watercraft. These Oceania then migrated to Bismarcks, Slolmons, and other islands nearby. In about 5,000 years ago, people from southeast Asia settled in the western Pacific Ocean and then established communities in all the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
Once before the sea level rose and divided Australia and New Guinea and people on the land used to hunt and gather food from the wild. However, after the land had separated about 10,000 years ago, people in two different regions started to develop in different paths.
The Austronesian-speaking people had advanced seafaring technologies as well as agricultural skills that they were able to establish human settlements in the islands of the Pacific Ocean. “Their outrigger canoes enabled them to sail safely over long distances of open ocean, and their food crops and domesticated animals enabled them to establish agricultural societies in the island” (Bentley, 2010, 79). Before the Common Era, Austronesian sailors arrived in Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. Then by the 700 C.E., they had reached Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand. Moreover, by explored many lands “these Pacific peoples speak 1200 of the world’s languages” (Winchester, 1991, 60).
While some people stayed in the islands of Polynesia, some sailed away. One group of people migrated from the Philippines to Micronesia, Mariana, Caroline, and Marshal Islands in the western Pacific. Other groups went from Indonesia through the Indian Ocean then settled at Madagascar. Those people sailed out from the Pacific Ocean to establish settlements in the Pacific islands, called Lapita. The Lapita people had communication and trades with each other across the sea from New Guinea to Tonga for 1000 years. The agriculture settlements were productive. They valued objects from other lands more than the ones they could produce. Long distance trading played an important role in the society. Examples for the trading items were the shell jewelry and stone tools.
By 500 B.C.E., the Lapita settlements were able to supply their own needs in the society, which lead to the decline of the long distance trading network. Due to population pressures and conflicts, the Austrinesian people started to spread out to other islands for more opportunities and more land. “This capacity was of special importance at the village level where the evidence of syncretic adaptation is particularly obvious” (Legge, 1965, 50).
Byzantium on Eastern Europe and early Russia
By eleventh century, Byzantium expended the government focus on to eastern Europe and Russia. The commonwealth system developed by the Byzantine empire, with the societies in Eastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, served as the major reason for the strong influence effect on the people. Although the Byzantine empire end in the fifteenth century C.E., the influence of the Slavic people on political, commercial, and cultural relations were long lasting.
The Byzantine empire was originated from the eastern part of the Roman empire, while the western part of the Roman empire collapsed in the fifth century C.E. The Byzantine empire was located at the Golden Horn, which enables the Byzantion to control the Bosporus. Control of the Bosporus indirectly controlled the countries around the Black Sea, Sea of Marmara, Dardanelles, Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean. The capital was named Constantinople, the city of Constantine, by the Roman emperor Constantine, who also had views of his own position in the Church as the Emperor and the Vicar of God” (Beckwith, 1979, 17). Constantinople was the most important political, military, and trading center in the eastern Mediterranean. However, when the Ottoman Turks conquered the region, the Constantinople was then renamed Istanbul. Although the southern region of the Byzantium empire was conquered by the Arab Muslim, the significant power figure, Byzantium, played in the eastern Mediterranean. While the “Islamic faith had seized control of the lands on the Mediterranean’s southern and eastern rims, Byzantines and western Europeans contested the northern rim” (Bentley, 2010, 198). Since eastern Europe and Russia had attentions from Byzantium, the Slavic people was greatly influenced in political, commercial, and cultural aspect.
Relationships between Byzantium and Slavic people started before the sixth century; by the eighth century, major influence in political, commercial, and society of Byzantium began as many Bulgarian ruling families left to Constantinople for formal Greek language and literature education. Another example was Bulgaria adopting Byzantium tradition and government system. Moreover missionaries, such as Saints Cyril and Methodius, were sent from Byzantium to many regions to convert the Slavic people to Orthodox Christianity. They also devised the Cyrillic alphabet, which was adapted from written Greek but represented the sounds of Slavic language. The Cyrillic alphabet increased the conversion of religion in a great way as the missionaries could explain the religious theories in Slavic terms; thus the religion value had deeply influenced the cultural of Slavic people. Moreover, the alphabet is still in use today.
Russia was established by the Slavic people from the northern Bulgaria in the mid-ninth century with a main trade route between Scandinavia and Byzantium. Russian merchants and princes visited and learned knowledge and techniques from Constantinople and eventually adapted the cultural of Byzantium society. In 989 Prince Vladimir of Kiev changed the national religion to Orthodox Christianity, which increased the influence of Byzantium culture to Russia. “In such a time, Russian Christianity, especially Russian Orthodoxy, brings with it the special authority … ”(Billington, 1999, 56). One example is the onion domes of the Russian churches. Moreover, based on the theory, Moscow was the world’s third Rome. Missionaries not only strengthened their faith and were inspirited, but also went on missions to other countries, continuing the legacy and spreading the influences of Byzantium throughout Russia and eastern Europe.
Egyptian Achievements
Agriculture in Africa started in the Sudan, then continued to Nile River valley and sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture had great effects in Egypt. Egypt is known as the territory of the modern Egypt today and also includes the lower third of the Nile and the river’s first cataract near Aswan. However, “the big division in Egypt’s control in the north was the river Euphrates” (Mahdy, 1999, 30). Egypt was the most distinguished society of early Africa because it was located in a favorable geographic region and the Egyptians were able to support their powerful society with their productive agricultural economy. Moreover, Egypt was able to trade goods with both eastern Mediterranean and southwest Asian countries. The abundant productivity of Egyptian agriculture was due to the Nile’s annual floods allowing the Egyptians to support their larger population compare to other lands. “Gift of the Nile” was the phrase made by the Greek historian Herodotus to admire the productivity of Egypt.
Pyramids constructed during the Old Kingdom, as royal tombs build in 2600 to 2500 B.C.E., are the most significant evidence of their authority and divinity of the pharaohs. One particular example will be the pyramid of Khufu, “… (also known as Cheops), which involved the precise cutting and fitting of 2.3 million limestone blocks weighing up to 15 tons, with an average weight of 2.5 tons. Scholars estimate that construction of Khufu’s pyramid required the services of some eighty-four thousand laborers working eighty days per year for twenty years”( Bentley et. al, 2010, 31).
Egyptian society established well-defined social classes. The peasants and slaves supplied the hard labor which made complex agriculture society possible; pharaoh was recognized as the supreme ruler of all. Professional military forces, administrators, and tax collectors who served the central government could be attained by people of common birth. Specialized labor and efficient transportation technologies helped the development of trading as well as exchange knowledge and techniques between the Nile valley to other countries. Bronze metallurgy, as an example, was spread from Mesopotamia to Egypt. Moreover, by 1000 B.C.E. Sudanic people were capable of develop iron production technology.
Writing, started at least by 3200 B.C.E., was combination of pictographs with symbols with sounds and ideas, and was called hieroglyphs meant “holy inscriptions” in Greek. The hieroglyphics appears on Egyptian monuments and buildings, as well as papyrus. Moreover, the texts were distinguished as “the world’s oldest religious literature” (Reeves,2000, 60). However, the Egyptians commonly used the hieratic script which was a simplified, cursive form of the hieroglyphs. The Hieratic started in the early 1000 E.C.E., and was used from 2600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. However, when the Egyptians adapted Greek alphabet and developed the demotic and Coptic scripts, hieratic was then abandoned.
The achievements of Egypt had influenced the later societies. The Egyptian developments in writing, architecture, and religion were learned and adapted throughout the evolution of human society. Egypt had great contributions in regard to the development of more organized and modern societies.
Works Cited
Beckwith, John. Early Christian and Byzantine Art, the pelican history of art. New York: Penguin Books, 1979.
Bentley, Jerry H., Heather E. Streets-Salter and Herbert F. Ziegler. Traditions and Encounters: a brief global history. 2nd. Vol. I: to 1500. New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities, 2010.
Billington, James H. Orthodox Christianity and the Russian Transformation. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1999.
Culbert, T. Patrick, ed. The Classic Maya Collapse. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973.
Fink, Leon. The Maya of Morganton: work and community in the nuevo new south. University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
Legge, G. D. Indonesia. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1965.
Mahdy, Christine El. Tutankhamen: the life and death of the boy king. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999.
Reeves, Nicholas. Ancient Egypt: The Great Discoveries. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2000.
Winchester, Simon. Pacific Rising: the emergence of a new workd culture. New York: Prentice Hall, 1991.
Maya, the earliest society to rise after the disappearance of Olmescs, was originated in the third century B.C.E. in the Guatemalan highlands, then moved to the Mesoamerican lowlands after fourth century C.E. The Maya had great accomplishments on social society structure and civilization, advanced astronomy development, accurate calculation and matured mathematical logic concepts.
Due to the infertile land, the Mayas developed terraces to trap nutrients to retain the productivity of the land, thus increasing the agricultural efficiency of maize and cotton. Cotton was a highly prized product in both society and for trade in the Mesoamerica region. Moreover, cacao was another wealth gathering source. Cacao, the source of chocolate, was consumed by the nobilities was used as money.
Over six hundred years, the Maya built many large pyramids, palaces, temples, and other settlements in the lowlands, which attracted more people and as a result established cities. Tikal, for example, was the most important Maya political center in this time period; it had gathered huge wealth and reached approximately forty thousand in population during 600 to 800 C.E. Another example is “The Temple of the Giant Jaguar, a stepped pyramid rising sharply to a height of 47 meters (154 feet), which dominated the skyline and represented Tikal’s control over the surrounding region, and had a population of about five hundred thousand” (Bentley, 2010, 71). Another way of gathering the wealth of Maya society was by warfare. The purpose of the warfare was not to kill the enemy or destroy their societies as other groups did, but rather to capture the people for slavery or as victims to sacrifice to the Maya gods. Moreover, as Fink mentioned, “there is no simple way to decipher the impact of powerful forces of war, political mobilization…” (Fink, 2003, 47).
Social status played a big role in Maya society. The lowest social level was made up by slaves and peasants to provide the physical labor needed. The professional architects and sculptors built buildings while the artisans produced materials for household uses as well as trading goods. The nobility organized military forces and participated in religious rituals while the merchants served as traders and ambassadors to other societies. The highest level was the king and the priests who maintained elaborate calendars and studied writing, astronomy, and mathematics.
Mathematically, not only the Mayans were able to calculate the calendar dates, but also they were able to adopt the “zero” concept into their calculation which enabled them to calculate large digit numbers. Moreover, they were able to understand the planet cycles and the eclipses of the sun and the moon; as a result calendars were then established. There were 365 days in Maya calendar, which was calculated by the priest, and was only about half a second different than the modern astronomers calculations. Such accuracy served as evidence of their advanced development of astronomy and as mathematicians. Another calendar the Maya had was the religious calendar which contained 260 days per year, divided time into twenty months with 13 days each, and served as the daily affairs reminder. The two calendars overlapped each other to indicate what people should accomplish each day. It takes fifty-two years for the two calendars to overlap to the same combination day, therefore, the restarting day had great significance for the Mayas.
Mayan writings contained ideographic and syllable symbols which indicated the advanced civilization as well as the maturity of the logical thought process. However, when the Spanish conquerors and missionaries arrived in the sixteenth century, they destroyed most of the books and other civilization evidences. Though only four books exist today, the impact of the astonishing development of literacy, mathematic, and astronomy are still playing an important role in today’s society. The reason for decline of the ancient Mayan society was unclear as Culbert mentioned that “… the theories… seems that many are or were simple straw-man theories.” (Culbert, 1973, 33).
Exploration and settlement of Oceania
More than 60,000 years ago, humans migrated to Australia and New Guinea by watercraft. These Oceania then migrated to Bismarcks, Slolmons, and other islands nearby. In about 5,000 years ago, people from southeast Asia settled in the western Pacific Ocean and then established communities in all the islands in the Pacific Ocean.
Once before the sea level rose and divided Australia and New Guinea and people on the land used to hunt and gather food from the wild. However, after the land had separated about 10,000 years ago, people in two different regions started to develop in different paths.
The Austronesian-speaking people had advanced seafaring technologies as well as agricultural skills that they were able to establish human settlements in the islands of the Pacific Ocean. “Their outrigger canoes enabled them to sail safely over long distances of open ocean, and their food crops and domesticated animals enabled them to establish agricultural societies in the island” (Bentley, 2010, 79). Before the Common Era, Austronesian sailors arrived in Vanuatu, New Caledonia, Fiji, Tonga, and Samoa. Then by the 700 C.E., they had reached Hawaii, Easter Island, and New Zealand. Moreover, by explored many lands “these Pacific peoples speak 1200 of the world’s languages” (Winchester, 1991, 60).
While some people stayed in the islands of Polynesia, some sailed away. One group of people migrated from the Philippines to Micronesia, Mariana, Caroline, and Marshal Islands in the western Pacific. Other groups went from Indonesia through the Indian Ocean then settled at Madagascar. Those people sailed out from the Pacific Ocean to establish settlements in the Pacific islands, called Lapita. The Lapita people had communication and trades with each other across the sea from New Guinea to Tonga for 1000 years. The agriculture settlements were productive. They valued objects from other lands more than the ones they could produce. Long distance trading played an important role in the society. Examples for the trading items were the shell jewelry and stone tools.
By 500 B.C.E., the Lapita settlements were able to supply their own needs in the society, which lead to the decline of the long distance trading network. Due to population pressures and conflicts, the Austrinesian people started to spread out to other islands for more opportunities and more land. “This capacity was of special importance at the village level where the evidence of syncretic adaptation is particularly obvious” (Legge, 1965, 50).
Byzantium on Eastern Europe and early Russia
By eleventh century, Byzantium expended the government focus on to eastern Europe and Russia. The commonwealth system developed by the Byzantine empire, with the societies in Eastern Europe and the eastern Mediterranean, served as the major reason for the strong influence effect on the people. Although the Byzantine empire end in the fifteenth century C.E., the influence of the Slavic people on political, commercial, and cultural relations were long lasting.
The Byzantine empire was originated from the eastern part of the Roman empire, while the western part of the Roman empire collapsed in the fifth century C.E. The Byzantine empire was located at the Golden Horn, which enables the Byzantion to control the Bosporus. Control of the Bosporus indirectly controlled the countries around the Black Sea, Sea of Marmara, Dardanelles, Aegean Sea, and the Mediterranean. The capital was named Constantinople, the city of Constantine, by the Roman emperor Constantine, who also had views of his own position in the Church as the Emperor and the Vicar of God” (Beckwith, 1979, 17). Constantinople was the most important political, military, and trading center in the eastern Mediterranean. However, when the Ottoman Turks conquered the region, the Constantinople was then renamed Istanbul. Although the southern region of the Byzantium empire was conquered by the Arab Muslim, the significant power figure, Byzantium, played in the eastern Mediterranean. While the “Islamic faith had seized control of the lands on the Mediterranean’s southern and eastern rims, Byzantines and western Europeans contested the northern rim” (Bentley, 2010, 198). Since eastern Europe and Russia had attentions from Byzantium, the Slavic people was greatly influenced in political, commercial, and cultural aspect.
Relationships between Byzantium and Slavic people started before the sixth century; by the eighth century, major influence in political, commercial, and society of Byzantium began as many Bulgarian ruling families left to Constantinople for formal Greek language and literature education. Another example was Bulgaria adopting Byzantium tradition and government system. Moreover missionaries, such as Saints Cyril and Methodius, were sent from Byzantium to many regions to convert the Slavic people to Orthodox Christianity. They also devised the Cyrillic alphabet, which was adapted from written Greek but represented the sounds of Slavic language. The Cyrillic alphabet increased the conversion of religion in a great way as the missionaries could explain the religious theories in Slavic terms; thus the religion value had deeply influenced the cultural of Slavic people. Moreover, the alphabet is still in use today.
Russia was established by the Slavic people from the northern Bulgaria in the mid-ninth century with a main trade route between Scandinavia and Byzantium. Russian merchants and princes visited and learned knowledge and techniques from Constantinople and eventually adapted the cultural of Byzantium society. In 989 Prince Vladimir of Kiev changed the national religion to Orthodox Christianity, which increased the influence of Byzantium culture to Russia. “In such a time, Russian Christianity, especially Russian Orthodoxy, brings with it the special authority … ”(Billington, 1999, 56). One example is the onion domes of the Russian churches. Moreover, based on the theory, Moscow was the world’s third Rome. Missionaries not only strengthened their faith and were inspirited, but also went on missions to other countries, continuing the legacy and spreading the influences of Byzantium throughout Russia and eastern Europe.
Egyptian Achievements
Agriculture in Africa started in the Sudan, then continued to Nile River valley and sub-Saharan Africa. Agriculture had great effects in Egypt. Egypt is known as the territory of the modern Egypt today and also includes the lower third of the Nile and the river’s first cataract near Aswan. However, “the big division in Egypt’s control in the north was the river Euphrates” (Mahdy, 1999, 30). Egypt was the most distinguished society of early Africa because it was located in a favorable geographic region and the Egyptians were able to support their powerful society with their productive agricultural economy. Moreover, Egypt was able to trade goods with both eastern Mediterranean and southwest Asian countries. The abundant productivity of Egyptian agriculture was due to the Nile’s annual floods allowing the Egyptians to support their larger population compare to other lands. “Gift of the Nile” was the phrase made by the Greek historian Herodotus to admire the productivity of Egypt.
Pyramids constructed during the Old Kingdom, as royal tombs build in 2600 to 2500 B.C.E., are the most significant evidence of their authority and divinity of the pharaohs. One particular example will be the pyramid of Khufu, “… (also known as Cheops), which involved the precise cutting and fitting of 2.3 million limestone blocks weighing up to 15 tons, with an average weight of 2.5 tons. Scholars estimate that construction of Khufu’s pyramid required the services of some eighty-four thousand laborers working eighty days per year for twenty years”( Bentley et. al, 2010, 31).
Egyptian society established well-defined social classes. The peasants and slaves supplied the hard labor which made complex agriculture society possible; pharaoh was recognized as the supreme ruler of all. Professional military forces, administrators, and tax collectors who served the central government could be attained by people of common birth. Specialized labor and efficient transportation technologies helped the development of trading as well as exchange knowledge and techniques between the Nile valley to other countries. Bronze metallurgy, as an example, was spread from Mesopotamia to Egypt. Moreover, by 1000 B.C.E. Sudanic people were capable of develop iron production technology.
Writing, started at least by 3200 B.C.E., was combination of pictographs with symbols with sounds and ideas, and was called hieroglyphs meant “holy inscriptions” in Greek. The hieroglyphics appears on Egyptian monuments and buildings, as well as papyrus. Moreover, the texts were distinguished as “the world’s oldest religious literature” (Reeves,2000, 60). However, the Egyptians commonly used the hieratic script which was a simplified, cursive form of the hieroglyphs. The Hieratic started in the early 1000 E.C.E., and was used from 2600 B.C.E. to 600 C.E. However, when the Egyptians adapted Greek alphabet and developed the demotic and Coptic scripts, hieratic was then abandoned.
The achievements of Egypt had influenced the later societies. The Egyptian developments in writing, architecture, and religion were learned and adapted throughout the evolution of human society. Egypt had great contributions in regard to the development of more organized and modern societies.
Works Cited
Beckwith, John. Early Christian and Byzantine Art, the pelican history of art. New York: Penguin Books, 1979.
Bentley, Jerry H., Heather E. Streets-Salter and Herbert F. Ziegler. Traditions and Encounters: a brief global history. 2nd. Vol. I: to 1500. New York: McGraw-Hill Humanities, 2010.
Billington, James H. Orthodox Christianity and the Russian Transformation. Maryknoll: Orbis Books, 1999.
Culbert, T. Patrick, ed. The Classic Maya Collapse. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Press, 1973.
Fink, Leon. The Maya of Morganton: work and community in the nuevo new south. University of North Carolina Press, 2003.
Legge, G. D. Indonesia. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, 1965.
Mahdy, Christine El. Tutankhamen: the life and death of the boy king. New York: St. Martin's Press, 1999.
Reeves, Nicholas. Ancient Egypt: The Great Discoveries. New York: Thames & Hudson, 2000.
Winchester, Simon. Pacific Rising: the emergence of a new workd culture. New York: Prentice Hall, 1991.
History: Educations
Education in China
Confucius was not the first teacher in China, but he did set up the format of teaching in early China. Moreover, the education system and ethics today are based on his teaching format.
Confucius, known as the “Master Philosopher Kong” in China in the memory of his importance contribution towards to education, lived in Lu country in 551- 479 B.C.E. “Confucius’ thoughts were fundamentally moral, ethical, and political in character. His thoughts were also thoroughly practical: Confucius did not address philosophical or religious questions, but focused instead on the proper ordering of human relationships” (Benyley, 2010, 105). He believes everyone had the right to pursue education; therefore, his teaching “has an important role to play in China from time to time (Mok, 2005, 58)”.
Confucius had a large class. He was not the ordinary teacher at the time that was hired by wealthy families and lived them to teach their children. Confucius was a free teacher who taught the public without asking for any money. People at the time would sit in a circle around him and listen to his teaching. The teaching was mainly composed of philosophy. He also taught people how to recognize simple words as the majority of the people could not read at the time.
There are many legends of Confucius written by his students. One of the stories about him described his open-mindedness and how he believed children had the right to learn. One day he was talking about the philosophy to people and teaching people how to be ethical. While people were listening to his teaching, there were three children that wanted to join the group to learn. The people refused the children and said the children were too young to understand the greatness of education. Confucius heard what the people told the children, and told the people everyone was equal and the children were more than welcome to stay and listen to him because he believed that the children are the future of the country. The country would improve only if the children were being treated well and being educated. Ever since, more and more young adults and children would go to Confucius to learn from him.
Another story was admiring his virtue that he wanted to be a good person instead of a rich person. Since at the time, teachers are rich as their employers were only rich people. The story started with three of his students arguing with each other. One student said he was smart enough that he could rule a big country with order. Another student said he could rule a medium sized country and let it be a rich country. The third student said he could only be the secretary and let the country be well maintained. Then they were asking Confucius if their thoughts were decent. Confucius, instead of answering their question and give comments, said that he himself would not want to rule the country or be a governor, and instead he wanted to serve people in need and teach the other people without asking them to repay. Then the students were speechless. They were ashamed that they wanted to pursue the monetary instead of pursuing the real virtue of human spirit.
People have great respect for teachers. . During the Waring Period of China, “dynamics of revolution, resistance, and reform were played out with regional variations throughout village China (Friedman, 2005, 5)”, many people have lost their parents in the family, so they will go to the teacher for help. Confucius was not a rich person, in fact, he was very poor, therefore, people donated food to him. Therefore, Confucius was also was like a parent figure for the people. The role of teacher since then was established. In China today, teachers still have great respect from people, and they served as a parent to their students.
Education in Japan
Chinese traditions not only influenced Japanese political and cultural development, but also education system and logic. According to Bentley, “The imperial house established a court modeled on that of the Tang, instituted a Chinese-style bureaucracy, implemented an equal-field system, provided official support for Confucianism and Buddhism, and in the year 710 moved to a new capital city at Nara that was a replica of the Tang capital at Chang’an (Bentley, 2010, 238)” Another example, Japanese was using Chinese characters as the official language. Even today, the Japanese characters were the ones developed from Chinese characters.
There are many legends about how the Chinese culture influence originated in Japan. One of the stories took place during the Tang period of China. There was a monk who was being punished and being shipped out from China. When he arrived in Japan his eyes weren’t able to see from the injury from the sea. The Japanese people saved him and in return he taught the people how to read and the philosophy of Buddha. After ten years, he rethought and understood more philosophy. He returned to China and the temple was happy to see him since he did not die on the sea, and moreover, he knew more things and understood the Buddha’s philosophy deeper than other monks. At the time, if one was being punished and did not die from the punishment, people believe it was the god’s decision for him to live and bring good news from Him. So this monk was then being treated with great respect. However, he did not forget the Japanese people. He then decided to return to Japan and to teach more things, such as language and literature as well as the Buddha philosophy.
During the early Japanese culture, children from rich families were educated. For the imperial family, the women were educated to help express themselves to men in order to be married. However, some women in the imperial family used education as a way to entertain; sometimes they wrote things that later became important literatures for the Japanese culture. One example was the famous Japanese literature work, The Tale of Genji. In the story, an attractive male, as described in the book that “he had grown up to be a child of unrivalled beauty and the Emperor was delighted with him (Waley, 1973, 15)”, from the imperial family was in love with a girl, but she was married to his father, the Emperor. His love towards her did not change over time. He had relationships with many women in the imperial family as well with the daughters of the governors. Then one day he met with a little girl in the temple, and learned that she was the relative of his loved step mother. He then took care of this little girl and to raise her to be his wife. However, by the end, she ran away from his best friend, who was also his deceased wife’s brother. The story is very complex, but the emotional descriptions and the mental struggles are very detailed and alive. Although the story and the people in the story were not real, scholars believe the author was writing the story based on a true story.
After all, the main aims for the education in the acient Japan was to “teach filial piety, friendship, benevolence, sincerity, propriety, respect, loyalty, courage, and modesty (Khan, 1997 ,75)
Education in India
India, as one of the largest country in todays world, has a rich cultural background. “The ancient Indian civilization flourished as a sophisticated and advanced society about 5000 years ago (Gupta, 2007, 67)”.The earliest written language in India is known as Veda. “Ancient texts such as the Veda were written in India using the Vedic language, an archaic form of Sanskrit, sometimes between 1500 and 2000 B.C. These texts have been considered by scholars from all over the world as being rich sources of philosophy, spiritual insights, and treatises on subjects such as medicine, science, math, astronomy, and so forth (Avinashilingam, 1960, 77)” The Vedic philosophy has directly informed education in India as well as the Buddhism and Hinduism philosophies.
The education in India in the early century was mainly for rich and noble families. “In Ancient India, formal schooling for children was said to have begun only at the age of seven or eight years (Altekar, 1965, 13)”. The people, specifically children, learned from a private tutor called a guru. Some other members of the community had a possibility to receive the education, but it was highly unlikely.
The kind of education that people received was according to their social level and what work tasks they would perform. The priest class people learned about religion, philosophy, language and literature. The warrior class people learned how to fight and all the skills for warfare. The business class people learned the knowledge of trading and mathematics. The lower class did not usually have the opportunity to receive any education at all. While the education was given according to their social class, there was a universal system that was open to people that had a passion and who could afford the tuition. The institution usually taught the student in certain practical fields such as medicine, logic, grammar, metaphysics, arts, and crafts. The advanced knowledge in such fields attracted large number of people to study and some were even from foreign countries.
Another educational characteristic was that the majority of the females were not educated. In tradition, Indian women were perceived as weak and helpless, therefore, not only did they lose the opportunity to receive education, they also were being looked down on from a social perspective. The rich women and the women in imperial family had the right to be educated, but most of them did not receive the same amount of education as men. Moreover, the education women receive was not the same as men; the education for women was household care.
The education received by people not only differed according to their social class, but also according to the region. The people that lived in a larger city received a better and more detailed education than the people who live in small village. The standard of education was not yet formed in the ancient India. Moreover, universities were closed because they were not able to establish the standardized education.
The social class restrictions certainly played a big role in education system in India. The education also prevented the people to escape from their social class to higher class. Therefore, it was very difficult for one to escape from the class were born into and to pursue a better live.
Education in England
“The educational history of England started since the period of Roman Empire (Shukla, 1998, 66)”. The educational history of England started in the period of the Roman Empire. At the time, people were learning mainly languages and logics. Children from rich families would attend school and sometimes their servants would also attend school to take care of their little masters. Males were more welcomed in school, while only few girls were receiving education. The education for males was mainly to prepare them for success in their later occupation. Moreover, some children were receiving special education for becoming the governor of the state. Females who received education often not only symbolized evidence of family wealth, but also showed the ability the girl had to take care of her future family and her children. Moreover, boys would stay in school to learn geography and history, while girls would stop going to school and start to learn household care from her mother.
Most of the education rich children receive in the school was different than the education received by the common people. The rich children received the knowledge of philosophy, mathematics, music, geography, and sometimes the special skills according to the father’s position in government. For the common people, education often meant pre-training for a particular job; such as artisans, who had to be trained for at least seven years before they could be independent from their teachers. Lower class people such as laborers did not have much opportunity to receive education as the wealthy, but they would learn skills for them to maintain their occupation. Slaves at the time would go with their masters, sometimes they would be waiting near by the classroom or sometimes they would be allowed to stay in the classroom while their masters were receiving education.
During the middle ages, education became more demanding as the society became more completed. Many people would attend schools now known as Cathedral school to receive education. Education at the time was mainly focused on liberal arts, especially literature and philosophy. “ Students read the Bible and the writings of the church fathers, as well as classical Latin literature and the few works of Plato and Aristotle that were available in Latin translation. Some cathedral schools also offered advanced instruction in Law, medicine, and theology (Bently, 2010, 313)”.
The two well known universities in the early era were the University of Oxford, and the University of Cambridge. The University of Oxford is located in Oxford, and is one of the oldest universities in the world. The university experienced a great population growth when Henry II banned students from attending the University of Paris. The University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge are often referred as Oxbridge as they shared many similarities since 1209. “The schools and classes are culturally mixed and where student have access to a range of knowledge (Adams, 2007, 170)”.
Works Cited
Adams, Leah D. and Anna Kirova. Global Migration and Education. Schools, Children, and Families. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007.
Altekar, A. S. Education in Ancient India. Varanasi: Nand Kishore & Brothers, 1965.
Avinashilingam, T. S. Gandhiji's Experiments in Education. Ministry of Education, Government of India, 1960.
Bentley, Jerry H., Herbert F. Ziegler and Heather E. Streets-Salter. Traditions & Encounters. second. Vol. I: to 1500. New York: McGraw Hill, 2010.
Friedman, Edward, Paul G. Pickowicz and Mark Selden. Revolution, Resistance, and Reform in Village China. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2005.
Gupta, Amita. Going to School in South Asia. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2007.
Khan, Yoshimitsu. Japanese Moral Education Past and Present. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997.
Mok, Ka-ho and Richard James. Globalization and Higher Education in East Asia. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic, 2005.
Murasaki, Lady. The tale of Genji. Trans. Arthur Waley. London: George Allen & Unwin LTD, 1935.
Shukla, Sureshchandra and Rekha Kaul. Education, Development and Underdevelopment. London: Sage, 1998.
Confucius was not the first teacher in China, but he did set up the format of teaching in early China. Moreover, the education system and ethics today are based on his teaching format.
Confucius, known as the “Master Philosopher Kong” in China in the memory of his importance contribution towards to education, lived in Lu country in 551- 479 B.C.E. “Confucius’ thoughts were fundamentally moral, ethical, and political in character. His thoughts were also thoroughly practical: Confucius did not address philosophical or religious questions, but focused instead on the proper ordering of human relationships” (Benyley, 2010, 105). He believes everyone had the right to pursue education; therefore, his teaching “has an important role to play in China from time to time (Mok, 2005, 58)”.
Confucius had a large class. He was not the ordinary teacher at the time that was hired by wealthy families and lived them to teach their children. Confucius was a free teacher who taught the public without asking for any money. People at the time would sit in a circle around him and listen to his teaching. The teaching was mainly composed of philosophy. He also taught people how to recognize simple words as the majority of the people could not read at the time.
There are many legends of Confucius written by his students. One of the stories about him described his open-mindedness and how he believed children had the right to learn. One day he was talking about the philosophy to people and teaching people how to be ethical. While people were listening to his teaching, there were three children that wanted to join the group to learn. The people refused the children and said the children were too young to understand the greatness of education. Confucius heard what the people told the children, and told the people everyone was equal and the children were more than welcome to stay and listen to him because he believed that the children are the future of the country. The country would improve only if the children were being treated well and being educated. Ever since, more and more young adults and children would go to Confucius to learn from him.
Another story was admiring his virtue that he wanted to be a good person instead of a rich person. Since at the time, teachers are rich as their employers were only rich people. The story started with three of his students arguing with each other. One student said he was smart enough that he could rule a big country with order. Another student said he could rule a medium sized country and let it be a rich country. The third student said he could only be the secretary and let the country be well maintained. Then they were asking Confucius if their thoughts were decent. Confucius, instead of answering their question and give comments, said that he himself would not want to rule the country or be a governor, and instead he wanted to serve people in need and teach the other people without asking them to repay. Then the students were speechless. They were ashamed that they wanted to pursue the monetary instead of pursuing the real virtue of human spirit.
People have great respect for teachers. . During the Waring Period of China, “dynamics of revolution, resistance, and reform were played out with regional variations throughout village China (Friedman, 2005, 5)”, many people have lost their parents in the family, so they will go to the teacher for help. Confucius was not a rich person, in fact, he was very poor, therefore, people donated food to him. Therefore, Confucius was also was like a parent figure for the people. The role of teacher since then was established. In China today, teachers still have great respect from people, and they served as a parent to their students.
Education in Japan
Chinese traditions not only influenced Japanese political and cultural development, but also education system and logic. According to Bentley, “The imperial house established a court modeled on that of the Tang, instituted a Chinese-style bureaucracy, implemented an equal-field system, provided official support for Confucianism and Buddhism, and in the year 710 moved to a new capital city at Nara that was a replica of the Tang capital at Chang’an (Bentley, 2010, 238)” Another example, Japanese was using Chinese characters as the official language. Even today, the Japanese characters were the ones developed from Chinese characters.
There are many legends about how the Chinese culture influence originated in Japan. One of the stories took place during the Tang period of China. There was a monk who was being punished and being shipped out from China. When he arrived in Japan his eyes weren’t able to see from the injury from the sea. The Japanese people saved him and in return he taught the people how to read and the philosophy of Buddha. After ten years, he rethought and understood more philosophy. He returned to China and the temple was happy to see him since he did not die on the sea, and moreover, he knew more things and understood the Buddha’s philosophy deeper than other monks. At the time, if one was being punished and did not die from the punishment, people believe it was the god’s decision for him to live and bring good news from Him. So this monk was then being treated with great respect. However, he did not forget the Japanese people. He then decided to return to Japan and to teach more things, such as language and literature as well as the Buddha philosophy.
During the early Japanese culture, children from rich families were educated. For the imperial family, the women were educated to help express themselves to men in order to be married. However, some women in the imperial family used education as a way to entertain; sometimes they wrote things that later became important literatures for the Japanese culture. One example was the famous Japanese literature work, The Tale of Genji. In the story, an attractive male, as described in the book that “he had grown up to be a child of unrivalled beauty and the Emperor was delighted with him (Waley, 1973, 15)”, from the imperial family was in love with a girl, but she was married to his father, the Emperor. His love towards her did not change over time. He had relationships with many women in the imperial family as well with the daughters of the governors. Then one day he met with a little girl in the temple, and learned that she was the relative of his loved step mother. He then took care of this little girl and to raise her to be his wife. However, by the end, she ran away from his best friend, who was also his deceased wife’s brother. The story is very complex, but the emotional descriptions and the mental struggles are very detailed and alive. Although the story and the people in the story were not real, scholars believe the author was writing the story based on a true story.
After all, the main aims for the education in the acient Japan was to “teach filial piety, friendship, benevolence, sincerity, propriety, respect, loyalty, courage, and modesty (Khan, 1997 ,75)
Education in India
India, as one of the largest country in todays world, has a rich cultural background. “The ancient Indian civilization flourished as a sophisticated and advanced society about 5000 years ago (Gupta, 2007, 67)”.The earliest written language in India is known as Veda. “Ancient texts such as the Veda were written in India using the Vedic language, an archaic form of Sanskrit, sometimes between 1500 and 2000 B.C. These texts have been considered by scholars from all over the world as being rich sources of philosophy, spiritual insights, and treatises on subjects such as medicine, science, math, astronomy, and so forth (Avinashilingam, 1960, 77)” The Vedic philosophy has directly informed education in India as well as the Buddhism and Hinduism philosophies.
The education in India in the early century was mainly for rich and noble families. “In Ancient India, formal schooling for children was said to have begun only at the age of seven or eight years (Altekar, 1965, 13)”. The people, specifically children, learned from a private tutor called a guru. Some other members of the community had a possibility to receive the education, but it was highly unlikely.
The kind of education that people received was according to their social level and what work tasks they would perform. The priest class people learned about religion, philosophy, language and literature. The warrior class people learned how to fight and all the skills for warfare. The business class people learned the knowledge of trading and mathematics. The lower class did not usually have the opportunity to receive any education at all. While the education was given according to their social class, there was a universal system that was open to people that had a passion and who could afford the tuition. The institution usually taught the student in certain practical fields such as medicine, logic, grammar, metaphysics, arts, and crafts. The advanced knowledge in such fields attracted large number of people to study and some were even from foreign countries.
Another educational characteristic was that the majority of the females were not educated. In tradition, Indian women were perceived as weak and helpless, therefore, not only did they lose the opportunity to receive education, they also were being looked down on from a social perspective. The rich women and the women in imperial family had the right to be educated, but most of them did not receive the same amount of education as men. Moreover, the education women receive was not the same as men; the education for women was household care.
The education received by people not only differed according to their social class, but also according to the region. The people that lived in a larger city received a better and more detailed education than the people who live in small village. The standard of education was not yet formed in the ancient India. Moreover, universities were closed because they were not able to establish the standardized education.
The social class restrictions certainly played a big role in education system in India. The education also prevented the people to escape from their social class to higher class. Therefore, it was very difficult for one to escape from the class were born into and to pursue a better live.
Education in England
“The educational history of England started since the period of Roman Empire (Shukla, 1998, 66)”. The educational history of England started in the period of the Roman Empire. At the time, people were learning mainly languages and logics. Children from rich families would attend school and sometimes their servants would also attend school to take care of their little masters. Males were more welcomed in school, while only few girls were receiving education. The education for males was mainly to prepare them for success in their later occupation. Moreover, some children were receiving special education for becoming the governor of the state. Females who received education often not only symbolized evidence of family wealth, but also showed the ability the girl had to take care of her future family and her children. Moreover, boys would stay in school to learn geography and history, while girls would stop going to school and start to learn household care from her mother.
Most of the education rich children receive in the school was different than the education received by the common people. The rich children received the knowledge of philosophy, mathematics, music, geography, and sometimes the special skills according to the father’s position in government. For the common people, education often meant pre-training for a particular job; such as artisans, who had to be trained for at least seven years before they could be independent from their teachers. Lower class people such as laborers did not have much opportunity to receive education as the wealthy, but they would learn skills for them to maintain their occupation. Slaves at the time would go with their masters, sometimes they would be waiting near by the classroom or sometimes they would be allowed to stay in the classroom while their masters were receiving education.
During the middle ages, education became more demanding as the society became more completed. Many people would attend schools now known as Cathedral school to receive education. Education at the time was mainly focused on liberal arts, especially literature and philosophy. “ Students read the Bible and the writings of the church fathers, as well as classical Latin literature and the few works of Plato and Aristotle that were available in Latin translation. Some cathedral schools also offered advanced instruction in Law, medicine, and theology (Bently, 2010, 313)”.
The two well known universities in the early era were the University of Oxford, and the University of Cambridge. The University of Oxford is located in Oxford, and is one of the oldest universities in the world. The university experienced a great population growth when Henry II banned students from attending the University of Paris. The University of Oxford and the University of Cambridge are often referred as Oxbridge as they shared many similarities since 1209. “The schools and classes are culturally mixed and where student have access to a range of knowledge (Adams, 2007, 170)”.
Works Cited
Adams, Leah D. and Anna Kirova. Global Migration and Education. Schools, Children, and Families. London: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007.
Altekar, A. S. Education in Ancient India. Varanasi: Nand Kishore & Brothers, 1965.
Avinashilingam, T. S. Gandhiji's Experiments in Education. Ministry of Education, Government of India, 1960.
Bentley, Jerry H., Herbert F. Ziegler and Heather E. Streets-Salter. Traditions & Encounters. second. Vol. I: to 1500. New York: McGraw Hill, 2010.
Friedman, Edward, Paul G. Pickowicz and Mark Selden. Revolution, Resistance, and Reform in Village China. New Haven and London: Yale University Press, 2005.
Gupta, Amita. Going to School in South Asia. Connecticut: Greenwood Press, 2007.
Khan, Yoshimitsu. Japanese Moral Education Past and Present. Madison: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 1997.
Mok, Ka-ho and Richard James. Globalization and Higher Education in East Asia. Singapore: Marshall Cavendish Academic, 2005.
Murasaki, Lady. The tale of Genji. Trans. Arthur Waley. London: George Allen & Unwin LTD, 1935.
Shukla, Sureshchandra and Rekha Kaul. Education, Development and Underdevelopment. London: Sage, 1998.
Eng. Paper: True Hero
True Hero
A hero is not created at the moment of his birth; rather, it is a result of fighting against many challenges in one’s life. Moreover, it is also a result of development from someone common to someone admirable. A hero could be defined as someone with courage or nobility of purpose, or it could be someone who has achieved in a particular field (Anderson 399). For a man to become a hero, he must work hard to achieve his goal unless he has some kind of super power, which is usually not the case in reality. To be a true hero, not only must he fight against the physical challenges, such as fight against a monster or enemy of the country, but also he must go through pains and tragedies for his psychological growth, such as a journey for seeking comfort or a way out of grief. There are two significant character examples to explain how a hero is made not only because of what he did but also what he has been through and thus became a hero: Gilgamesh from the story of Gilgamesh and Okonkwo from the story Things Fall Apart.
Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, was called “a god and man,” for he was two third god and one third man. He was regarded as a selfish, contradictory, and arrogant man and “a tyrant to his people” in the beginning of the story (Mason 15). One example of his selfishness is when “he demanded, from an old birthright, / the privilege of sleeping with their brides / before the husbands were permitted” so that he sleeps with the virgins for pleasure without considering the husband’s feeling and even claims it is his birthright to do so (Mason 15). Moreover, when he was going to defeat Humbaba, he only thinks how he was going to kill the monster just because he wanted to, without considering what other people were thinking; when Enkidu questioned him about the reason for killing the monster, he was “only half listening Gilgamesh thought / aloud about the cedars he would climb” (Mason 28). Gilgamesh only thinks of what he wants and how he is going to do it without thinking of other people’s feelings; even when he tried to convince Enkidu to go with him and said “…don’t be afraid, said Gilgamesh / we are together…”; he was solely for himself (Mason 28). Moreover, it was also because of his selfishness that he went on to the journey to find the ways to bring Enkidu back. When he was in deep grief, he was “into a deeper isolation. Mad, / perhaps insane, her tried / to bring Enkidu back to life / to end his bitterness…” (Mason 55). He was not only trying to bring Enkidu back to life for overcoming Enkidu’s fear of death, as mentioned as “his fear of death”, but for Gilgamesh’s own loneliness (Mason 55). Further evidence of his selfishness is when he said “why did he have to die? / he would have stayed with me in death. / he would not have let me die alone”; he was angry for Enkidu’s death because he was being left alone instead of angry because Enkidu’s death was arranged by gods (Mason 68).
Gilgamesh’s contradictory nature and boredom of ruling is clearly indicated as “he pushes his people half to death / with work rebuilding Uruk’s walls, / and then without an explanation let / the walls go unattended and decay / and left his people dreaming of the past / and longing for a change” (Mason 16). Due to his moody and callous ways of ruling the country, people are not only tired of him being a king, but also desiring to have a change; however, even “they knew his world was old / and cluttered with spoiled arts / that they defended but could not revive” (Mason 16). Another example of him being moody and his boredom of ruling is when the hunter’s son came to him and asked how to treat the Creature, Enkidu, he and his father found. Gilgamesh simply “sent the prostitute but then forgot” (Mason 17). His way of solving this problem shows his carelessness and his boredom of ruling. First, his expectation of the prostitute remains unknown since the Creature was not human and the prostitute’s job was to comfort man. Thus his carelessness was shown. Second, Gilgamesh indicated that “he had heard / so many stories of the Wondrous / Creatures of the Forest and the Steppe / that he could hardly be aroused;” it is nearly impossible to forget when someone reported to him that they actually had captured the Creature (Mason 17). However, due to the boredom of ruling, he forgot about it right after he gave the order.
The arrogance of Gilgamesh is easily shown when his mother made her prophecy from his dream about the star “…which you will try to lift / and drive away, and fail”; then he immediately replied “but I have never failed before” (Mason 19). And as she continues her prophecy, he was shocked and in deep thought that he “was quiet at this interpretation / of his dream” for those things she said such as failing and falling into love to another person were unexpected (Mason 19). Gilgamesh also takes pride on himself as he answered Siduri, the barmaid, “I am Gilgamesh, who killed Humbaba / and the Bull of Heaven with my friend” (Mason 63). He did not mentioned Enkidu’s name but rather referred to him as a friend. Moreover, he did not tell anyone that he could never have defeated Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven without Enkidu’s help. He took credit solely on himself. Even when he went on to the journey “to find the secret of eternal life / to bring Enkidu back to life”, it was an action that a human will not take, as it is arrogant to believe one has the ability the same as god (Mason 61).
Growth is significant and mandatory for one to develop and to become a hero. Gilgamesh was dictating his country for years; finally he wanted to change. When his mother told him about this dream of ax, he said, “I am alone and I have longed / for some companionship. My people / also have qrown tired of my solitude” indicating that he had hit the bottom and was ready for new self (Mason20). Also his saying indicated that he was finally aware of what his people thought of him and about the country. He was indeed ready to grow and face the challenges (Mason 20). One challenge he decided to face was to defeat “the Evil One” (Mason 27). He wanted to “prove / ourselves more powerful than he” for the countrymen to gain confidence in him and the country (Mason 27). At this point of Gilgamesh’s life, he started to think of his country and to serve his people. Although when he and his friend were fighting against the monster, “suddenly it was Gilgamesh who was afraid,” then “Enkidu who reminded him to be fearless” and, by the end, they have defeated Humbaba successfully (Mason 34). He grew to be a stronger man because of his friend, and then served even as a protector then, as he said to Enkidu who was afraid, “It will pass, … we must go down into the forest together. / forget your fear of death. I will go before you / and protect you…” (Mason 35). Another example for him to be supportive was then he “knew his friend was close to death / he tried to recollect aloud their life together… not to explain but to save his friend” (Mason 48). More evidence of his growth was then he had overcome his sin of lust when Ishtar, the “goddest of love / and fruitfulness / and war,” tried to seduce him to marry her (Mason 42). He rejects sexual love as he refused her by saying “We outgrow our naiveté / in thinking goddesses / return our love / I am tired of your promises…” which indicated he was no longer the man who sleeps with virgins for pleasure without thinking of others’ feelings (Mason 43). Eventually he then “turned away to his friend / Enkidu” to his true love, also evidence of his growth from being a childish man to a more mature man who realized what true love is (Mason 44). Finally when he met with Utnapishtim, he learned that “…friendship is vowing toward immortality / and does not know the passing away of beauty / because it aims for the spirit… love is wrung from our inmost heart… love’s kiss kills our heart of flesh, / it is the only way to eternal life… ” so then he overcomes the grief and found the comfort as Utnapishtim said “… compassion is our God’s pure act / which burns forever, / and be it in Heaven or in Hell … Hell is the everlasting gift / of his presence / to the lonely heart who is longing…” (Mason 74). Loss is always painful, but once Gilgamesh overcomes, he grows stronger. He also learned from his past. He was then experienced loss again. Although he wept, he did not stop from his journey back to Uruk as indicated that “in time he recognized this loss / as the end of his journey / and returned to Uruk” (Mason 91). He then also became a less selfish man as he “said nothing more / to force his sorrow on another” and he started to consider about other’s feelings. Finally, the evidence for him to grow to a different man is when he saw “his people had achieved/ and for a moment – just a moment - / all that lay behind him / passed from view,” which action indicated that he is willing to face a new challenge and look at what is in front of him in the future, instead of being trapped to what has happened in the past like he was before (Mason 92). Although he was considered to be a hero by his people when he defeated the evil Humbaba, he then finally was considered to be a true hero thoroughly when he defeated his old self and became the better man.
Okonkwo, a well known man throughout the nine villages, whose fame rested on solid personal achievements was a successful man in opposition of his father (Achebe 3-4).There are five major events in his life that change his character and show his true self: society’s perspective of his father, the death of Ikemefuna, the night of Ezinma and Chielo, exile from his father’s village, and killing the messenger.
Unoka, Okonkwo’s father, did not leave a barn for his son to inherit (Achebe 16). He was known for his laziness and his huge debt as indicated that “he was lazy and improvident and was quite incapable of thinking about tomorrow…a debtor, and he owed every neighbor some money…” (Achebe 4). More evidence of his laziness was when he gone to consult Agbala, and the priestess had replied to him, “…You, Unoka, are known in all the clan for the weakness of your machete and your hoe…they cross seven rivers to make their farms, you stay at home and offer sacrifices to a reluctant soil. Go home and work like a man” (Achebe 17-18). He was being laughed at because “he was a failure. He was poor and his wife and children had barely enough to eat… he was a loafer…” (Achebe 5). Due to his father’s weakness, Okonkwo had “slow and painful starting life. But he threw himself into it like one possessed. And indeed he was possessed by the fear of his father’s contemptible life and shameful death” (Achebe 18). Fearing to be like his father, Okonkwo worked very hard and presented himself as a very serious man, and often shows violence and disgust toward whatever his father loved, in order to show the differences between him and his father. As much he hates his father, he is presenting himself as the opposite of his father. Therefore, he dislikes whoever is similar, or even who likes music as his father did as indicated that “without looking at the man Okonkwo had said: ’This meeting is for man.’ The man who had contradicted him had no titles. That was why he had called him a woman. Okonkwo knew how to kill a man’s spirit” (Achebe 26). His father’s presence made a great impact in Okonkwo’s life as a barrier that against Okonkwo mentally stepping out of the comfort zone to experience the pain to grow.
Ikemefuna’s death has significant impact on Okonkwo’s life. First, the first two days Okonkwo did not eat anything other than drinking (Achebe 63). He did not sleep at night, and can not help to think of Ikemefuna (Achebe 63). Many evidences showed that Okonkwo did not wish to kill Ikemefuna but he had to do it because “he was afraid of being thought weak” (Achebe 61). The pressure that his father gave him in his early age affected him so much that eventually ruled through his entire life. Although Ikemefuna was important to him, he was still too afraid of what other people think of him in order to take the step on expressing his true feeling in the public. Through Ikemefuna’s death, Okonkwo started to gain deeper relationship with his daughter and even thought “she should have been a boy” (Achebe 64). Not only this is an evidence that indicated the importance of losing a part of himself, but also an indication of his changing of mental state: from a cold heart and not attached to anyone, changed to a warm hearted person without showing to people because of he is afraid to be like his father. Ikemefuna’s death served as the force to enforce Okonkwo to step out of his comfort zone and to feel the pain and thus grow. Not only now Okonkwo re-examined his relationship between him and Ikemefuna, but also the relationship with the people around him. Such as when he thought of Ezinma should have been a boy again (Achebe 64).
Okonkwo’s passion in his daughter had gained overtime. One evidence for his attachment to his daughter was when she has been token by the priestess Chielo for mysterious reason. Although at the first moment he questioned Ekwefi for going to follow Chielo, he was then prepared to go after Ekwefi has left (Achebe 103). He had shown the warm love by his action, as he “gone with his machete to the shrine, where he thought they must be… When he thought he had waited long enough he again returned to the shrine. But the Hills and the Caves were as silent as death. It was only on his fourth trip that he had found Ekwefi, and by then he had become gravely worried” (Achebe 112). Although he was still not dare to show his tiresome to other people, but his change has definitely took its place psychologically (Achebe 112).
Due to the tragedy Okonkwo had been through, his exile from his father land was painful. “Oknkwo and his family had to work very hard to plant a new farm. But it was like beginning life new without the vigor and enthusiasm of youth… work no longer had for him the pleasure it used to have, and when there was no work to do he sat in a silent half-sleep” (Achebe 131). Okonkwo had discouraged and hopelessly live his life after his exile. As “his life had been ruled by a great passion – to become one of the lords of the clan… but everything had been broken…” he had been forced to step out to face new challenge again (Achebe 131). He lost the fame he had worked on, and it was what he looked upon the most. Although he was then accepted to be back to his father land after seven years, everything has changed. Nwoye, his son, has threw himself into Christianity and left. Okonkwo reminds that people used to call him the “Roaring Flame” as he looked at the fire (Achebe 153). As an evident of his psychological progress that he realized his traditional thoughts are not relevant for the new era anymore; while him recalled his popular name as the flaming fire, “he sighed heavily, and as if in sympathy the smoldering log also sighed. And immediately Okonkwo’s eyes were opened and he saw the whole matter clearly. Living fire begets cold, impotent ash. He sighed again, deeply” (Achebe 153). And also at this point of his life, he thought of the end of the old and the tradition as well as the end of his life.
While part of him matured, another part of psychological himself still exists. Therefore, self-confliction has resulted in him. While he was struggling with the tradition and the new concepts of accept the soft and passionate himself, the killing of messenger played an important role in his life. “Okonkwo stood looking at the dead man. He knew that Umuofia would not go to war… ‘Why did he do it?’ He wiped his machete on the sand and went away” (Achebe 205). The question the man asked indicated not only the difference Okonkwo’s traditional thought is no longer useful, but also forced Okonkwo to re-evalue himself in the society. All his life he had worked on to take the highest title in the clan, but in the end, he was just a common person without any significance to other people in the clan (Achebe 131). Not only he will not be recognized as an important person in the village, but also he was a criminal and will eventually have an undignified death. Therefore, in order to keep his last dignity, he decided to commit suicide, for he was too proud to be taken to be judged, but also in contradict, his maturation of his new concept allows him to decide when and how his own death is. Okonkwo was a complicated character who faces many challenges, while the challenges he faced also makes his characteristic to become more complex than before. Although he might not be considered as a hero by Western culture, he is definitely regarded as a hero in another culture for his way of fighting, his passionate heart, his mental progress of maturation, and his way of protecting his dignity.
While people are praising heroic actions, they seem to forget the difficult journey the hero had to take in order to be a hero. Moreover, people seem to be only seeing the result the hero had produced, such as peace and happiness. However, it is superficial to do so; people must not ignore what heroes have been through. Not only what they did for the common good as the result but also the developments and growth they have made is often painful but essential to become a hero.
Works Cited
Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New York: Anchor, 1994.
Anderson, B. ed. "Hero." The American Heritage Dictionary. New York: Dell, 2004. 399.
Mason, Herbert. Gilgamesh: a Verse Narrative. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003.
A hero is not created at the moment of his birth; rather, it is a result of fighting against many challenges in one’s life. Moreover, it is also a result of development from someone common to someone admirable. A hero could be defined as someone with courage or nobility of purpose, or it could be someone who has achieved in a particular field (Anderson 399). For a man to become a hero, he must work hard to achieve his goal unless he has some kind of super power, which is usually not the case in reality. To be a true hero, not only must he fight against the physical challenges, such as fight against a monster or enemy of the country, but also he must go through pains and tragedies for his psychological growth, such as a journey for seeking comfort or a way out of grief. There are two significant character examples to explain how a hero is made not only because of what he did but also what he has been through and thus became a hero: Gilgamesh from the story of Gilgamesh and Okonkwo from the story Things Fall Apart.
Gilgamesh, king of Uruk, was called “a god and man,” for he was two third god and one third man. He was regarded as a selfish, contradictory, and arrogant man and “a tyrant to his people” in the beginning of the story (Mason 15). One example of his selfishness is when “he demanded, from an old birthright, / the privilege of sleeping with their brides / before the husbands were permitted” so that he sleeps with the virgins for pleasure without considering the husband’s feeling and even claims it is his birthright to do so (Mason 15). Moreover, when he was going to defeat Humbaba, he only thinks how he was going to kill the monster just because he wanted to, without considering what other people were thinking; when Enkidu questioned him about the reason for killing the monster, he was “only half listening Gilgamesh thought / aloud about the cedars he would climb” (Mason 28). Gilgamesh only thinks of what he wants and how he is going to do it without thinking of other people’s feelings; even when he tried to convince Enkidu to go with him and said “…don’t be afraid, said Gilgamesh / we are together…”; he was solely for himself (Mason 28). Moreover, it was also because of his selfishness that he went on to the journey to find the ways to bring Enkidu back. When he was in deep grief, he was “into a deeper isolation. Mad, / perhaps insane, her tried / to bring Enkidu back to life / to end his bitterness…” (Mason 55). He was not only trying to bring Enkidu back to life for overcoming Enkidu’s fear of death, as mentioned as “his fear of death”, but for Gilgamesh’s own loneliness (Mason 55). Further evidence of his selfishness is when he said “why did he have to die? / he would have stayed with me in death. / he would not have let me die alone”; he was angry for Enkidu’s death because he was being left alone instead of angry because Enkidu’s death was arranged by gods (Mason 68).
Gilgamesh’s contradictory nature and boredom of ruling is clearly indicated as “he pushes his people half to death / with work rebuilding Uruk’s walls, / and then without an explanation let / the walls go unattended and decay / and left his people dreaming of the past / and longing for a change” (Mason 16). Due to his moody and callous ways of ruling the country, people are not only tired of him being a king, but also desiring to have a change; however, even “they knew his world was old / and cluttered with spoiled arts / that they defended but could not revive” (Mason 16). Another example of him being moody and his boredom of ruling is when the hunter’s son came to him and asked how to treat the Creature, Enkidu, he and his father found. Gilgamesh simply “sent the prostitute but then forgot” (Mason 17). His way of solving this problem shows his carelessness and his boredom of ruling. First, his expectation of the prostitute remains unknown since the Creature was not human and the prostitute’s job was to comfort man. Thus his carelessness was shown. Second, Gilgamesh indicated that “he had heard / so many stories of the Wondrous / Creatures of the Forest and the Steppe / that he could hardly be aroused;” it is nearly impossible to forget when someone reported to him that they actually had captured the Creature (Mason 17). However, due to the boredom of ruling, he forgot about it right after he gave the order.
The arrogance of Gilgamesh is easily shown when his mother made her prophecy from his dream about the star “…which you will try to lift / and drive away, and fail”; then he immediately replied “but I have never failed before” (Mason 19). And as she continues her prophecy, he was shocked and in deep thought that he “was quiet at this interpretation / of his dream” for those things she said such as failing and falling into love to another person were unexpected (Mason 19). Gilgamesh also takes pride on himself as he answered Siduri, the barmaid, “I am Gilgamesh, who killed Humbaba / and the Bull of Heaven with my friend” (Mason 63). He did not mentioned Enkidu’s name but rather referred to him as a friend. Moreover, he did not tell anyone that he could never have defeated Humbaba and the Bull of Heaven without Enkidu’s help. He took credit solely on himself. Even when he went on to the journey “to find the secret of eternal life / to bring Enkidu back to life”, it was an action that a human will not take, as it is arrogant to believe one has the ability the same as god (Mason 61).
Growth is significant and mandatory for one to develop and to become a hero. Gilgamesh was dictating his country for years; finally he wanted to change. When his mother told him about this dream of ax, he said, “I am alone and I have longed / for some companionship. My people / also have qrown tired of my solitude” indicating that he had hit the bottom and was ready for new self (Mason20). Also his saying indicated that he was finally aware of what his people thought of him and about the country. He was indeed ready to grow and face the challenges (Mason 20). One challenge he decided to face was to defeat “the Evil One” (Mason 27). He wanted to “prove / ourselves more powerful than he” for the countrymen to gain confidence in him and the country (Mason 27). At this point of Gilgamesh’s life, he started to think of his country and to serve his people. Although when he and his friend were fighting against the monster, “suddenly it was Gilgamesh who was afraid,” then “Enkidu who reminded him to be fearless” and, by the end, they have defeated Humbaba successfully (Mason 34). He grew to be a stronger man because of his friend, and then served even as a protector then, as he said to Enkidu who was afraid, “It will pass, … we must go down into the forest together. / forget your fear of death. I will go before you / and protect you…” (Mason 35). Another example for him to be supportive was then he “knew his friend was close to death / he tried to recollect aloud their life together… not to explain but to save his friend” (Mason 48). More evidence of his growth was then he had overcome his sin of lust when Ishtar, the “goddest of love / and fruitfulness / and war,” tried to seduce him to marry her (Mason 42). He rejects sexual love as he refused her by saying “We outgrow our naiveté / in thinking goddesses / return our love / I am tired of your promises…” which indicated he was no longer the man who sleeps with virgins for pleasure without thinking of others’ feelings (Mason 43). Eventually he then “turned away to his friend / Enkidu” to his true love, also evidence of his growth from being a childish man to a more mature man who realized what true love is (Mason 44). Finally when he met with Utnapishtim, he learned that “…friendship is vowing toward immortality / and does not know the passing away of beauty / because it aims for the spirit… love is wrung from our inmost heart… love’s kiss kills our heart of flesh, / it is the only way to eternal life… ” so then he overcomes the grief and found the comfort as Utnapishtim said “… compassion is our God’s pure act / which burns forever, / and be it in Heaven or in Hell … Hell is the everlasting gift / of his presence / to the lonely heart who is longing…” (Mason 74). Loss is always painful, but once Gilgamesh overcomes, he grows stronger. He also learned from his past. He was then experienced loss again. Although he wept, he did not stop from his journey back to Uruk as indicated that “in time he recognized this loss / as the end of his journey / and returned to Uruk” (Mason 91). He then also became a less selfish man as he “said nothing more / to force his sorrow on another” and he started to consider about other’s feelings. Finally, the evidence for him to grow to a different man is when he saw “his people had achieved/ and for a moment – just a moment - / all that lay behind him / passed from view,” which action indicated that he is willing to face a new challenge and look at what is in front of him in the future, instead of being trapped to what has happened in the past like he was before (Mason 92). Although he was considered to be a hero by his people when he defeated the evil Humbaba, he then finally was considered to be a true hero thoroughly when he defeated his old self and became the better man.
Okonkwo, a well known man throughout the nine villages, whose fame rested on solid personal achievements was a successful man in opposition of his father (Achebe 3-4).There are five major events in his life that change his character and show his true self: society’s perspective of his father, the death of Ikemefuna, the night of Ezinma and Chielo, exile from his father’s village, and killing the messenger.
Unoka, Okonkwo’s father, did not leave a barn for his son to inherit (Achebe 16). He was known for his laziness and his huge debt as indicated that “he was lazy and improvident and was quite incapable of thinking about tomorrow…a debtor, and he owed every neighbor some money…” (Achebe 4). More evidence of his laziness was when he gone to consult Agbala, and the priestess had replied to him, “…You, Unoka, are known in all the clan for the weakness of your machete and your hoe…they cross seven rivers to make their farms, you stay at home and offer sacrifices to a reluctant soil. Go home and work like a man” (Achebe 17-18). He was being laughed at because “he was a failure. He was poor and his wife and children had barely enough to eat… he was a loafer…” (Achebe 5). Due to his father’s weakness, Okonkwo had “slow and painful starting life. But he threw himself into it like one possessed. And indeed he was possessed by the fear of his father’s contemptible life and shameful death” (Achebe 18). Fearing to be like his father, Okonkwo worked very hard and presented himself as a very serious man, and often shows violence and disgust toward whatever his father loved, in order to show the differences between him and his father. As much he hates his father, he is presenting himself as the opposite of his father. Therefore, he dislikes whoever is similar, or even who likes music as his father did as indicated that “without looking at the man Okonkwo had said: ’This meeting is for man.’ The man who had contradicted him had no titles. That was why he had called him a woman. Okonkwo knew how to kill a man’s spirit” (Achebe 26). His father’s presence made a great impact in Okonkwo’s life as a barrier that against Okonkwo mentally stepping out of the comfort zone to experience the pain to grow.
Ikemefuna’s death has significant impact on Okonkwo’s life. First, the first two days Okonkwo did not eat anything other than drinking (Achebe 63). He did not sleep at night, and can not help to think of Ikemefuna (Achebe 63). Many evidences showed that Okonkwo did not wish to kill Ikemefuna but he had to do it because “he was afraid of being thought weak” (Achebe 61). The pressure that his father gave him in his early age affected him so much that eventually ruled through his entire life. Although Ikemefuna was important to him, he was still too afraid of what other people think of him in order to take the step on expressing his true feeling in the public. Through Ikemefuna’s death, Okonkwo started to gain deeper relationship with his daughter and even thought “she should have been a boy” (Achebe 64). Not only this is an evidence that indicated the importance of losing a part of himself, but also an indication of his changing of mental state: from a cold heart and not attached to anyone, changed to a warm hearted person without showing to people because of he is afraid to be like his father. Ikemefuna’s death served as the force to enforce Okonkwo to step out of his comfort zone and to feel the pain and thus grow. Not only now Okonkwo re-examined his relationship between him and Ikemefuna, but also the relationship with the people around him. Such as when he thought of Ezinma should have been a boy again (Achebe 64).
Okonkwo’s passion in his daughter had gained overtime. One evidence for his attachment to his daughter was when she has been token by the priestess Chielo for mysterious reason. Although at the first moment he questioned Ekwefi for going to follow Chielo, he was then prepared to go after Ekwefi has left (Achebe 103). He had shown the warm love by his action, as he “gone with his machete to the shrine, where he thought they must be… When he thought he had waited long enough he again returned to the shrine. But the Hills and the Caves were as silent as death. It was only on his fourth trip that he had found Ekwefi, and by then he had become gravely worried” (Achebe 112). Although he was still not dare to show his tiresome to other people, but his change has definitely took its place psychologically (Achebe 112).
Due to the tragedy Okonkwo had been through, his exile from his father land was painful. “Oknkwo and his family had to work very hard to plant a new farm. But it was like beginning life new without the vigor and enthusiasm of youth… work no longer had for him the pleasure it used to have, and when there was no work to do he sat in a silent half-sleep” (Achebe 131). Okonkwo had discouraged and hopelessly live his life after his exile. As “his life had been ruled by a great passion – to become one of the lords of the clan… but everything had been broken…” he had been forced to step out to face new challenge again (Achebe 131). He lost the fame he had worked on, and it was what he looked upon the most. Although he was then accepted to be back to his father land after seven years, everything has changed. Nwoye, his son, has threw himself into Christianity and left. Okonkwo reminds that people used to call him the “Roaring Flame” as he looked at the fire (Achebe 153). As an evident of his psychological progress that he realized his traditional thoughts are not relevant for the new era anymore; while him recalled his popular name as the flaming fire, “he sighed heavily, and as if in sympathy the smoldering log also sighed. And immediately Okonkwo’s eyes were opened and he saw the whole matter clearly. Living fire begets cold, impotent ash. He sighed again, deeply” (Achebe 153). And also at this point of his life, he thought of the end of the old and the tradition as well as the end of his life.
While part of him matured, another part of psychological himself still exists. Therefore, self-confliction has resulted in him. While he was struggling with the tradition and the new concepts of accept the soft and passionate himself, the killing of messenger played an important role in his life. “Okonkwo stood looking at the dead man. He knew that Umuofia would not go to war… ‘Why did he do it?’ He wiped his machete on the sand and went away” (Achebe 205). The question the man asked indicated not only the difference Okonkwo’s traditional thought is no longer useful, but also forced Okonkwo to re-evalue himself in the society. All his life he had worked on to take the highest title in the clan, but in the end, he was just a common person without any significance to other people in the clan (Achebe 131). Not only he will not be recognized as an important person in the village, but also he was a criminal and will eventually have an undignified death. Therefore, in order to keep his last dignity, he decided to commit suicide, for he was too proud to be taken to be judged, but also in contradict, his maturation of his new concept allows him to decide when and how his own death is. Okonkwo was a complicated character who faces many challenges, while the challenges he faced also makes his characteristic to become more complex than before. Although he might not be considered as a hero by Western culture, he is definitely regarded as a hero in another culture for his way of fighting, his passionate heart, his mental progress of maturation, and his way of protecting his dignity.
While people are praising heroic actions, they seem to forget the difficult journey the hero had to take in order to be a hero. Moreover, people seem to be only seeing the result the hero had produced, such as peace and happiness. However, it is superficial to do so; people must not ignore what heroes have been through. Not only what they did for the common good as the result but also the developments and growth they have made is often painful but essential to become a hero.
Works Cited
Achebe, Chinua. Things Fall Apart. New York: Anchor, 1994.
Anderson, B. ed. "Hero." The American Heritage Dictionary. New York: Dell, 2004. 399.
Mason, Herbert. Gilgamesh: a Verse Narrative. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2003.
Jacob van Ruisdael
Seventeenth century Dutch culture was based on a wealth economy and the development was outstanding compare to other European countries during this period. Dutch society was run by the middle class, mainly the merchants and tradesmen at the cities, also by the upper class, which was not dominated by aristocracy or noble families. Freedom of worship was the most significant differences in Dutch society. This gave rise to the spirit growth and awakening of people’s spirituality. The country was not dominated by a king nor a single political party or church; as a result, Holland grew fastest in compare with other Europe countries in the aspect of humanity: people were free to think, say, and print what they want. Holland was the center of the book trade in Europe for many years and it is perhaps was the greatest single contributories to western Europe culture was its painting.
Jacob van Ruisdael, born around 1628 in Haarlem and died in 1682 at Amsterdam, is generally known as Holland’s greatest painter for landscape. He spent his childhood in Haarlem where at this time other landscapists were active, such as his uncle and teacher, Salomon van Ruysdael. The reason people think Jacob learned how to paint from his uncle was because the way they are painting are similar. Salomon was very specific what he was painting waterfalls and ponds. However, even as a landscapist, his painting only a few have likelihood match to the actual scene. Jacob, different than Salomon, enjoys painting the actual scene as much as possible. He likes to paint Jewish Cemetery and his views of Haarlem, which indicated how much he loved his homeland. The space of the sky and the land and the shadow on the land were very popular in his painting.
Jacob van Ruisdael, born around 1628 in Haarlem and died in 1682 at Amsterdam, is generally known as Holland’s greatest painter for landscape. He spent his childhood in Haarlem where at this time other landscapists were active, such as his uncle and teacher, Salomon van Ruysdael. The reason people think Jacob learned how to paint from his uncle was because the way they are painting are similar. Salomon was very specific what he was painting waterfalls and ponds. However, even as a landscapist, his painting only a few have likelihood match to the actual scene. Jacob, different than Salomon, enjoys painting the actual scene as much as possible. He likes to paint Jewish Cemetery and his views of Haarlem, which indicated how much he loved his homeland. The space of the sky and the land and the shadow on the land were very popular in his painting.
Eng Com 1 Paper
Outline
Thesis: Today’s way to success is deviated from the “traditional concept”; it is affected by many different factors, such as social class, education, and race.
I. Success
1. the dream for all: how people perceive the gateway to success
2. the real gateway to success: how social class, race, and education affect the pathway
II. education and social class
1. how different schooling method based on different social class
2. how people evaluate schooling and education from different social class
3. how schooling and education related and how they related to success
III. Race
1. negative: how opportunities are limited in different aspect
2. race and social class relation
3. cause of racism
IV. Success in different aspect and definition
1. material success: materialism and capitalism
2. spiritual success
Bibliography
Anyon, Jean. “From Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work” Rereading
America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th Edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007.
173-188
Applebaum, Barbara. "White Complicity and Social Justice Education: Can One Be
Culpable without Being Liable?." Educational Theory 57.4 (01 Nov. 2007): 453-
467. ERIC. EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr.
2009.
Bonilla-Silva, “Eduardo. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the
Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States”. New York: Roman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 2003
Brown, M., Miles, R.” Racism”. 2nd Edition. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis
Group. 2003
Case, Kim A. "Raising White Privilege Awareness and Reducing Racial Prejudice:
Assessing Diversity Course Effectiveness." Teaching of Psychology 34.4 (01 Dec.
2007): 231-235. ERIC. EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio,
TX. 7 Apr. 2009
Cesari, Jocelyne. “When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the
United States”. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Press, 2004
Craughwell, Thomas J. “The Book of Art” New York: Black Dog & Leventhal
Publishers. Inc., 2008
Cole, S. & Parker, A. Ed. “Beyond Black and White: Race Ethnicity, and Gender in the
U.S. South and Southwest” 1st Edition. College Station: Texas A&M University
Press, 2004
Copeland, Valire Carr. "African Americans: Disparities in Health Care Access and
Utilization." Health & Social Work 30.3 (01 Aug. 2005): 265. ERIC. EBSCO.
University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr. 2009
DeBlaere, Cirleen, and Bonnie Moradi.. "Structures of the Schedules of Racist and Sexist
Events: Confirmatory Factor Analyses of African American Women's
Responses." Psychology of Women Quarterly 32.1 (01 Mar. 2008): 83-94. ERIC.
EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr. 2009
Fredrickson, George M. “Racism, a short history”. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.
2002
Gatto, John Taylor. “Against School” Rereading America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th Edition.
Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 153-159
Gruener, J., Queen, S. “Social Pathology: Obstacles to Social Participation” Racism:
Essential Readings. Ed. Cashmore, E & Jennings, J. 1st Edition. London: SAGE
Publications, 2001. 18-26
Malik, Iftikhar H. “Islam and Modernity: Muslims in Europe and the United States”.
London: Pluton Press, 2004
Mantsios, Gregory. “Class in America - 2003” Rereading American Ed. Gary Columbo.
7th edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 307-322
Parrillo, Vincent N. “Causes of Prejudice” Rereading America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th
Edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007 504-518
Pieterse, Alex L., and Robert T. Carter.. "An Examination of the Relationship between
General Life Stress, Racism-Related Stress, and Psychological Health among
Black Men." Journal of Counseling Psychology 54.1 (01 Jan. 2007): 101-109.
ERIC. EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr. 2009
Smedley, Audrey, and Brian D. Smedley.. "Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a
Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social
Construction of Race." American Psychologist 60.1 (01 Jan. 2005): 16-26. ERIC.
EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr. 2009
Soto, Gary. “Looking for Work” Rereading American Ed. Gary Columbe. 7th edition.
Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 26-31
Terkel, Studs. “Stephen Cruz” Rereading American Ed. Gary Columbe. 7th edition.
Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 353-358
Warren, Simon. "Migration, Race and Education: Evidence-Based Policy or Institutional
Racism?." Race, Ethnicity and Education 10.4 (01 Dec. 2007): 367-385. ERIC.
EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX.. 7 Apr. 2009
Works Cited
Anyon, Jean. “From Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work” Rereading
America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th Edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007.
173-188
Applebaum, Barbara. "White Complicity and Social Justice Education: Can One Be
Culpable without Being Liable?." Educational Theory 57.4 (01 Nov. 2007): 453-
467. ERIC. EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr.
2009.
Bonilla-Silva, “Eduardo. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the
Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States”. New York: Roman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 2003
Brown, M., Miles, R.” Racism”. 2nd Edition. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis
Group. 2003
Cesari, Jocelyne. “When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the
United States”. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Press, 2004
Cole, S. & Parker, A. Ed. “Beyond Black and White: Race Ethnicity, and Gender in the
U.S. South and Southwest” 1st Edition. College Station: Texas A&M University
Press, 2004
Craughwell, Thomas J. “The Book of Art” New York: Black Dog & Leventhal
Publishers. Inc., 2008
Gatto, John Taylor. “Against School” Rereading America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th Edition.
Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 153-159
Gruener, J., Queen, S. “Social Pathology: Obstacles to Social Participation” Racism:
Essential Readings. Ed. Cashmore, E & Jennings, J. 1st Edition. London: SAGE
Publications, 2001. 18-26
Mantsios, Gregory. “Class in America - 2003” Rereading American Ed. Gary Columbo.
7th edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 307-322
Parrillo, Vincent N. “Causes of Prejudice” Rereading America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th
Edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007 504-518
Smedley, Audrey, and Brian D. Smedley.. "Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a
Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social
Construction of Race." American Psychologist 60.1 (01 Jan. 2005): 16-26. ERIC.
EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr. 2009
Soto, Gary. “Looking for Work” Rereading American Ed. Gary Columbe. 7th edition.
Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 26-31
Terkel, Studs. “Stephen Cruz” Rereading American Ed. Gary Columbe. 7th edition.
Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 353-358
Warren, Simon. "Migration, Race and Education: Evidence-Based Policy or Institutional
Racism?." Race, Ethnicity and Education 10.4 (01 Dec. 2007): 367-385. ERIC.
EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX.. 7 Apr. 2009
Article
We all have trying to achieve our dreams, our goals at least once in our lifetime. Some people succeed, some failed. Even we have failed, we will keep trying until we gave up. There are many reasons we give up our dreams. We often blame on other individuals who took the opportunities away from us, but sometimes we blame ourselves for not working hard enough. We believe working hard is the key to open the gate of success (Terkel.) Society and media have told us that the elements to attain success are education, opportunity, and hard working; however, according to what Cruz claimed to Terkel, “…the dream is being governed by a few people’s notion of what the dream is.” (357) Today’s way to success is deviated from the “traditional concept”; it is affected by many different factors, such as social class, education, and race.
According to Mantsios, “ the wealthiest 1 percent of the American population holds 38 percent of the total national wealth,” (310), and also that the gap in between the richest and the poorest are getting larger, the conclusion could be drawn as – the rich people own the most opportunity within their own class. In order to keep owning the opportunities to their social class, education, most in related to schooling, is one of the most important way to accomplish such goal, as it teaches the next generation how to preserve the opportunities and stay in the same social class.
The purpose of schooling is differing according to different social class. The executive elite school is trying to make the students educated and thoughtful. To stimulate student’s abilities to observe problem, analyze structure, and solve the problem. The people of next generation must have the abilities, practical or psychological skills such as variety of experience and critical thinking, to separate them from other class group and thus maintain in the upper division of the social class. Similar to the upper social class schooling, the purpose of schooling for the working class is also to maintain the social status. Although the school system provides a small opportunity for the working class to improve their life status, however, the main function is to keep the working class group within the same group. School for the working class are aiming for student’s critical thinking or exposes them to different opportunities to gain lie experience, rather, to train students to stop thinking ahead and not having interested in the knowledge (Applebaum.) The students from this class are not able to express their neither thoughts nor creativities freely. Not only is the school system training obedient students, but well-trained workers. Working class especially, is that schooling aiming for: to manipulate large labor force (Gatto.) The working class is a major component of today’s society; however, it is a class with the most limitation regarding to schooling (Applebaum.)
School is one way of receiving education, however, as the school system divided, the education volume and quality is differ depending on which social class category the school in under. The inequality is just what Warren mentioned that the education is not equal to schooling, it is equal to the social status. Therefore, the education the working class students receive is far different than the upper social class student. Schooling is not an essential element of success for the working class, even it is strongly recommended (Warren.) From what students have been learning, success is something needed to be earned through hard work even it is not always the case. Many people struggle for living but still blaming themselves that they are not working hard enough for their situation. Schooling is not often agreeable to the working class people, but it certainly is recognized by the executive class though its educational value as well as it’s function: maintaining the stability of the upper social class.
To the working class, schooling is not entirely useless or valueless, but depending on the attitude people have; since it proved people opportunity to enter a field of career, it is also an opportunity leads people to another social class. For example, an artist does not need a college diploma to enter the field. There are many great artists are considering as the masters of art such as van Gogh, Hilliard, or West. They are the masters from the past and their paintings are still often to be taught in art school (Craughwell.) However, in today’s world, a college diploma is essential for someone is going to have a stable career in the art field. Despite the free working artists, people who desire stable income and considered to be hired, a certificate or the same kind is always important. To some extent, working class does not need such if the position from the generation is being passed to the next, which is exact what the upper people wishes, the people in control. Therefore, it is easy to understand how the schooling and the education system is made and also how well the goal is being achieved. And for the middle class, which has not mentioned in the previous paragraphs, are not being considered in this big map, since the middle class is already disappearing (Smedley.) Slowly, the upper class is collecting all the resources and wealth as much as they can, thus the gap in between the rich and the poor increases.
People within the same group of the social class might not realize the differences between the upper class and the working class, however, there is another factor that people can see most likely in their own everyday lives that also is an element for people to succeed – race.
Racial discrimination is a long time issue people arguing even today. “Although Americans have traditionally treated race relations as a matter of black and white, race in this country is much more complex” (Cole, XI.) According to Mantsios, the chances of being poor in America: white male/female is 1 in 10, white female head is 1 in 5, Hispanic male/female is 1 in 5, Hispanic female head is 1 in 3, black male/female is 1 in 5, and black female head is 1 in 3. The data he provided has shown the inequality and also the racial status of the society that being the black or Hispanic are in the more disadvantage side of the balance. However, “most whites insist that minorities (especially blacks) are the ones responsible for whatever “race problem” we have in this country” says by Bonilla-Silva, “They publicly denounce blacks for “playing the race card,” for demanding the maintenance of unnecessary and divisive race-based programs, such as affirmative action, and for crying “racism” whenever they are criticized by whites” (1.) The reality is, blacks receive impolite treatments in public places, and in a host of many commercial transactions. Researchers have also documented that blacks pay more for goods such as cars and houses than the whites do. Finally, they are the target of racial profiling by the police that, combined with the highly racialized criminal court system, they are more likely to be overrepresentation among those arrested, prosecuted, incarcerated, and if charged for a capital crime, executed. (Bonilla-Silva 2)
Not only many people are not realize the inequality between different racial group still exist, they often refuse to recognize they are actually one of the people how create this inequality. Such that when “…whites enter the labor market, they feel entitled to vent their resentment in a relatively straightforward manner,” analyzed by Bonilla-Silva. “No need to sweeten the pill when [they] feel morally entitled to a job or promotion over all blacks, since [they] believe [the blacks] are “not qualified,” when [they] believe the taxes [they] pay are being largely wasted on “welfare-dependent blacks,” when [they] convinced that blacks use discrimination as an excuse to cover up for their own inadequacies” (71.) Similar to what Brown has mentioned in his book, “consequently, employers rank people present in the labour market. Where the resulting hierarchy is constructed in such a qay that the qualities of individuals are perceived as representative of a wider collectivity, and where the individual is deemed to possess the criteria that designate membership of that collectivity, the question of suitability may be determined by reference to the perceived qualities of the collectivity rather than to those of the individual applicant” (132.) In a more simple way to revise Brown’s claim is that: when the white people are viewing a colored person, instead of seeing how he or she is, but seeing as his or her color and the racial group of that person belongs to. Just as what Brown has tried to clarify later in the paragraph, “… the recruitment of labour is racialized. That is, the labour market is perceived to include members of different “races”, each of which is seen to possess a range of different skills and abilities which distinguish that group as a supposed “race”” (132.) Further more, “most whites believe that if blacks and other minorities would just stop thinking about the past, work hard, and complain less (particularly about racial discrimination), then Americans of all hues could “all get along”” ( Bonilla-Silva, 1.) Although the inequality and the racial conflict are the issue still presenting everyday, even now, most white people still believe it is something already occurred, and no longer exist. The concept Bonilla-Silva mentioned above is one of the factor that the black and the Hispanic people are having harder time to achieve their goal, their dream, and to be considering as a successful person. The society refuse to give equal opportunity to the colored people as the society believes the white people are having greater professional skill and ability over the colored people (Cesari.) Not only it is harder for the colored people to success, but also it makes the colored people often fall into the lower social class.
However, just as not all the whites recognized the racial conflict nowadays, but also the colored people. They are not likely to try to change their living status, probably due to lack of hope, or lack of opportunity. Queen and Gruener have observed, “[the black and Hispanic people] appear to accept their situation without feeling, or at least without expectation of change.” In addition, as they continue, “whether they are really apathetic or merely inarticulate is hard to tell. At all events, they make little if any effort to alter their conditions of life. This general group of reactions seems to involve recognition of white superiority. Sometimes it includes imitation of the white people. The urge to be like white folk manifests itself variously, in the seeking of a mate who is lighter colored than oneself, dreaming of being white, and , in some cases, attempting to pass as white” (25.)
One of the examples that is an evident to Queen and Gruener’s observation is from Soto’s story of his childhood. As a little Mexican boy lived on an ordinary block of mostly working class people, knew the difference between the rich and the poor, and also the relationships between the people in different race. He had a sense of the white people are more success than the people in his race. He saw white families on TV as he describes “there were no beatings, no rifts in the family,” he continues, “they wore bright clothes; toys tumbled from their closets…they hurried through the day making friends and gobs of money, returning home to a warmly lit living room, and then dinner” (29.) The image of such a wonderful family left Soto an impression of the social differences between upper class and lower class, and in order to be happy, he must be one of the people in the upper class (Soto.); the definition of happiness thus becomes the definition of success as well as what a person should be pursuing. Further more, Soto tried to convince his family to change in order to make the upper social class families accept his family when he mentioned, “I tried to convince them that if we improved the way we looked we might get along better in life. White people…might not hat us so much.” (30) He not only understood the differences of social classes, but also understood that the most important element was to make the upper class people accept his family in order to achieve his dream – to be successful and to be happy.
Reason for the racism is clear and easy according to Brown, “… it was natural for people to prefer to live among “their own kind”, and therefore to discriminate against those not considered pat of that community.” (61) In our natural beings, we are likely to grouping ourselves and discriminate other group in order to survive back in the old days. Even such jungle grouping method of living style is no longer apply to most of the society today, especially U.S., the nature is still within all of us. However, there more reasons people can study into. One of the reasons is due to the dissatisfaction of people’s lives.
Recall to what Parrillo claimed and similar to what Smedley has analyzed, that frustration is the result of the lack of resources, rewards, in one’s standing of living in comparison with those of others in the society. In another words, people are frustrated when they are dissatisfied. “Frustrated people may easily strike out against the perceived cause of their frustration. However, this reaction may not be possible because the true source of the frustration is often too nebulous to be identified or too powerful to act against” (Parrillo, 511.) As a result, people release this frustration on the colored people by discriminating against them. Whites often blame colored people as a way out of their negative feelings (Warren.) They think they are dissatisfied with their lives due to the presence of the colored people. Thus, the conflict between whites and the colored people, especially blacks, deepens.
Conflicts in society are often hard problems to solve because of the negative concepts, which are often passed down to the other generations from parents (Warren.) In such an example of the socialization process, individuals acquire the values, attitudes beliefs, and perceptions of their culture or subculture (Parrillo.) This includes religion, nationality, and social class (Cesari.) The conflicts with races in society are culturally based instead of individually based. If a person developed negative attitudes about colored people from his or her parents, when he or she becomes an adult, they will take actions against colored people. But they might not realize the reason for these actions and feelings, because they were instilled at a young age (Parrillo, 515.)
Many people have the tendency to put other people down in order to lift up themselves, the upper class, will keep a low profile and enclose the resources that exist until they decide someone from the outside circle is allowed to join (Terkel.) Eventually, the colored people are often the target for such inequality. Not only they are more likely to be exclude from the group they are in, such as job or social group, also more likely to be pressed downward regarding to the bottom of the rank. However, what if the colored individual is one of the upper social classman? The situation will not change dramatically. Many minorities plays against within the individual of their own group, according to Cesari, that even the people from the same country also plays against each other. The competition is even harsher when the two individual’s benefit conflict, which in another words, if two are against each other for resources and wealth, they will be against each other regardless of the background or which racial group the individual is coming from. Such conflict is certainly not a desirable issue to occur when our goal is to create an utopian society. However, as long as people discriminate each other, such issue is difficult to avoid and solve.
The definition of success of society today is more inclined to material and career success instead of spiritual happiness. Regarding material success, reality is much crueler than people expect. Materialism and capitalism lead people to not caring of others; such that people will try to get whatever they want without of thinking others since the wealth they gain is what they believe they “deserve.” However, such social system and ideology of materialism and capitalism are the core issue of how the society shape today: gap or rich and poor, discrimination, social class structure. The line in between “materialism” and “greedy” is very blurry when comes to define it. Not only both are trying to gather all the wealth and material as one’s best, but also both are perusing something that is physically presenting. For example, open a fashion magazine, over half of the volume is about the advertisements of some expensive brands and what is their newest products. Also, through media, people are falling into the replacement marketing trap the businesspeople create to let the consumers to buy their product. However, the effect replacement marketing is wider than superficial effect and it plants into people’s hearts. People believe the material they are going to consume is going to make them to be who they want to be. They become more confident and feel better about themselves. However, in order for them to enjoy the grace the material bring to them, they have to work harder to preserve their resources as well to take over other people’s resources in order to gain their own wealth. Thus, people become materialism, and further more, they become greedy.
Many people are not rich, but they are happy. This is a myth that many upper social class people do not understand. How can one be poor but happy? This statement seems to be contradiction but it is not. “Poor” is a word of how the individual’s economy or monetary mean; it means without money when it is under the monetary situation. Happiness is a state or mind: satisfaction, and enjoyment. One of course can be poor and happy, since it means two different states. Success in a spiritual way is a path to satisfaction. One can be success or fail, but it is not depend on other people nor the society, but how one is going to learn, and how he or she is grow though every day lives. One doesn’t need to be rich to be happy, but satisfied what he or she has, and the enjoyment he or she receive and create from the environment and one self. The happiness is what the most important thing, people often ignore the importance of the state of mind. The mind gives people courage to face every day challenge, it makes people laugh and cry; it is what makes people feel alive. One can achieve the spiritual success only if he or she wants to from the depth of his or her heart.
Thesis: Today’s way to success is deviated from the “traditional concept”; it is affected by many different factors, such as social class, education, and race.
I. Success
1. the dream for all: how people perceive the gateway to success
2. the real gateway to success: how social class, race, and education affect the pathway
II. education and social class
1. how different schooling method based on different social class
2. how people evaluate schooling and education from different social class
3. how schooling and education related and how they related to success
III. Race
1. negative: how opportunities are limited in different aspect
2. race and social class relation
3. cause of racism
IV. Success in different aspect and definition
1. material success: materialism and capitalism
2. spiritual success
Bibliography
Anyon, Jean. “From Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work” Rereading
America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th Edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007.
173-188
Applebaum, Barbara. "White Complicity and Social Justice Education: Can One Be
Culpable without Being Liable?." Educational Theory 57.4 (01 Nov. 2007): 453-
467. ERIC. EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr.
2009.
Bonilla-Silva, “Eduardo. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the
Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States”. New York: Roman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 2003
Brown, M., Miles, R.” Racism”. 2nd Edition. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis
Group. 2003
Case, Kim A. "Raising White Privilege Awareness and Reducing Racial Prejudice:
Assessing Diversity Course Effectiveness." Teaching of Psychology 34.4 (01 Dec.
2007): 231-235. ERIC. EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio,
TX. 7 Apr. 2009
Cesari, Jocelyne. “When Islam and Democracy Meet: Muslims in Europe and in the
United States”. New York: Palgrave Macmillan Press, 2004
Craughwell, Thomas J. “The Book of Art” New York: Black Dog & Leventhal
Publishers. Inc., 2008
Cole, S. & Parker, A. Ed. “Beyond Black and White: Race Ethnicity, and Gender in the
U.S. South and Southwest” 1st Edition. College Station: Texas A&M University
Press, 2004
Copeland, Valire Carr. "African Americans: Disparities in Health Care Access and
Utilization." Health & Social Work 30.3 (01 Aug. 2005): 265. ERIC. EBSCO.
University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr. 2009
DeBlaere, Cirleen, and Bonnie Moradi.. "Structures of the Schedules of Racist and Sexist
Events: Confirmatory Factor Analyses of African American Women's
Responses." Psychology of Women Quarterly 32.1 (01 Mar. 2008): 83-94. ERIC.
EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr. 2009
Fredrickson, George M. “Racism, a short history”. Princeton: Princeton Univ. Press.
2002
Gatto, John Taylor. “Against School” Rereading America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th Edition.
Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 153-159
Gruener, J., Queen, S. “Social Pathology: Obstacles to Social Participation” Racism:
Essential Readings. Ed. Cashmore, E & Jennings, J. 1st Edition. London: SAGE
Publications, 2001. 18-26
Malik, Iftikhar H. “Islam and Modernity: Muslims in Europe and the United States”.
London: Pluton Press, 2004
Mantsios, Gregory. “Class in America - 2003” Rereading American Ed. Gary Columbo.
7th edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 307-322
Parrillo, Vincent N. “Causes of Prejudice” Rereading America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th
Edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007 504-518
Pieterse, Alex L., and Robert T. Carter.. "An Examination of the Relationship between
General Life Stress, Racism-Related Stress, and Psychological Health among
Black Men." Journal of Counseling Psychology 54.1 (01 Jan. 2007): 101-109.
ERIC. EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr. 2009
Smedley, Audrey, and Brian D. Smedley.. "Race as Biology Is Fiction, Racism as a
Social Problem Is Real: Anthropological and Historical Perspectives on the Social
Construction of Race." American Psychologist 60.1 (01 Jan. 2005): 16-26. ERIC.
EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr. 2009
Soto, Gary. “Looking for Work” Rereading American Ed. Gary Columbe. 7th edition.
Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 26-31
Terkel, Studs. “Stephen Cruz” Rereading American Ed. Gary Columbe. 7th edition.
Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007. 353-358
Warren, Simon. "Migration, Race and Education: Evidence-Based Policy or Institutional
Racism?." Race, Ethnicity and Education 10.4 (01 Dec. 2007): 367-385. ERIC.
EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX.. 7 Apr. 2009
Works Cited
Anyon, Jean. “From Social Class and the Hidden Curriculum of Work” Rereading
America Ed. Gary Columbo. 7th Edition. Boston: Bedford/St Martin’s Press, 2007.
173-188
Applebaum, Barbara. "White Complicity and Social Justice Education: Can One Be
Culpable without Being Liable?." Educational Theory 57.4 (01 Nov. 2007): 453-
467. ERIC. EBSCO. University of the Incarnate Word, San Antonio, TX. 7 Apr.
2009.
Bonilla-Silva, “Eduardo. Racism without Racists: Color-Blind Racism and the
Persistence of Racial Inequality in the United States”. New York: Roman &
Littlefield Publishers, Inc. 2003
Brown, M., Miles, R.” Racism”. 2nd Edition. New York: Routledge Taylor & Francis
Group. 2003
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Article
We all have trying to achieve our dreams, our goals at least once in our lifetime. Some people succeed, some failed. Even we have failed, we will keep trying until we gave up. There are many reasons we give up our dreams. We often blame on other individuals who took the opportunities away from us, but sometimes we blame ourselves for not working hard enough. We believe working hard is the key to open the gate of success (Terkel.) Society and media have told us that the elements to attain success are education, opportunity, and hard working; however, according to what Cruz claimed to Terkel, “…the dream is being governed by a few people’s notion of what the dream is.” (357) Today’s way to success is deviated from the “traditional concept”; it is affected by many different factors, such as social class, education, and race.
According to Mantsios, “ the wealthiest 1 percent of the American population holds 38 percent of the total national wealth,” (310), and also that the gap in between the richest and the poorest are getting larger, the conclusion could be drawn as – the rich people own the most opportunity within their own class. In order to keep owning the opportunities to their social class, education, most in related to schooling, is one of the most important way to accomplish such goal, as it teaches the next generation how to preserve the opportunities and stay in the same social class.
The purpose of schooling is differing according to different social class. The executive elite school is trying to make the students educated and thoughtful. To stimulate student’s abilities to observe problem, analyze structure, and solve the problem. The people of next generation must have the abilities, practical or psychological skills such as variety of experience and critical thinking, to separate them from other class group and thus maintain in the upper division of the social class. Similar to the upper social class schooling, the purpose of schooling for the working class is also to maintain the social status. Although the school system provides a small opportunity for the working class to improve their life status, however, the main function is to keep the working class group within the same group. School for the working class are aiming for student’s critical thinking or exposes them to different opportunities to gain lie experience, rather, to train students to stop thinking ahead and not having interested in the knowledge (Applebaum.) The students from this class are not able to express their neither thoughts nor creativities freely. Not only is the school system training obedient students, but well-trained workers. Working class especially, is that schooling aiming for: to manipulate large labor force (Gatto.) The working class is a major component of today’s society; however, it is a class with the most limitation regarding to schooling (Applebaum.)
School is one way of receiving education, however, as the school system divided, the education volume and quality is differ depending on which social class category the school in under. The inequality is just what Warren mentioned that the education is not equal to schooling, it is equal to the social status. Therefore, the education the working class students receive is far different than the upper social class student. Schooling is not an essential element of success for the working class, even it is strongly recommended (Warren.) From what students have been learning, success is something needed to be earned through hard work even it is not always the case. Many people struggle for living but still blaming themselves that they are not working hard enough for their situation. Schooling is not often agreeable to the working class people, but it certainly is recognized by the executive class though its educational value as well as it’s function: maintaining the stability of the upper social class.
To the working class, schooling is not entirely useless or valueless, but depending on the attitude people have; since it proved people opportunity to enter a field of career, it is also an opportunity leads people to another social class. For example, an artist does not need a college diploma to enter the field. There are many great artists are considering as the masters of art such as van Gogh, Hilliard, or West. They are the masters from the past and their paintings are still often to be taught in art school (Craughwell.) However, in today’s world, a college diploma is essential for someone is going to have a stable career in the art field. Despite the free working artists, people who desire stable income and considered to be hired, a certificate or the same kind is always important. To some extent, working class does not need such if the position from the generation is being passed to the next, which is exact what the upper people wishes, the people in control. Therefore, it is easy to understand how the schooling and the education system is made and also how well the goal is being achieved. And for the middle class, which has not mentioned in the previous paragraphs, are not being considered in this big map, since the middle class is already disappearing (Smedley.) Slowly, the upper class is collecting all the resources and wealth as much as they can, thus the gap in between the rich and the poor increases.
People within the same group of the social class might not realize the differences between the upper class and the working class, however, there is another factor that people can see most likely in their own everyday lives that also is an element for people to succeed – race.
Racial discrimination is a long time issue people arguing even today. “Although Americans have traditionally treated race relations as a matter of black and white, race in this country is much more complex” (Cole, XI.) According to Mantsios, the chances of being poor in America: white male/female is 1 in 10, white female head is 1 in 5, Hispanic male/female is 1 in 5, Hispanic female head is 1 in 3, black male/female is 1 in 5, and black female head is 1 in 3. The data he provided has shown the inequality and also the racial status of the society that being the black or Hispanic are in the more disadvantage side of the balance. However, “most whites insist that minorities (especially blacks) are the ones responsible for whatever “race problem” we have in this country” says by Bonilla-Silva, “They publicly denounce blacks for “playing the race card,” for demanding the maintenance of unnecessary and divisive race-based programs, such as affirmative action, and for crying “racism” whenever they are criticized by whites” (1.) The reality is, blacks receive impolite treatments in public places, and in a host of many commercial transactions. Researchers have also documented that blacks pay more for goods such as cars and houses than the whites do. Finally, they are the target of racial profiling by the police that, combined with the highly racialized criminal court system, they are more likely to be overrepresentation among those arrested, prosecuted, incarcerated, and if charged for a capital crime, executed. (Bonilla-Silva 2)
Not only many people are not realize the inequality between different racial group still exist, they often refuse to recognize they are actually one of the people how create this inequality. Such that when “…whites enter the labor market, they feel entitled to vent their resentment in a relatively straightforward manner,” analyzed by Bonilla-Silva. “No need to sweeten the pill when [they] feel morally entitled to a job or promotion over all blacks, since [they] believe [the blacks] are “not qualified,” when [they] believe the taxes [they] pay are being largely wasted on “welfare-dependent blacks,” when [they] convinced that blacks use discrimination as an excuse to cover up for their own inadequacies” (71.) Similar to what Brown has mentioned in his book, “consequently, employers rank people present in the labour market. Where the resulting hierarchy is constructed in such a qay that the qualities of individuals are perceived as representative of a wider collectivity, and where the individual is deemed to possess the criteria that designate membership of that collectivity, the question of suitability may be determined by reference to the perceived qualities of the collectivity rather than to those of the individual applicant” (132.) In a more simple way to revise Brown’s claim is that: when the white people are viewing a colored person, instead of seeing how he or she is, but seeing as his or her color and the racial group of that person belongs to. Just as what Brown has tried to clarify later in the paragraph, “… the recruitment of labour is racialized. That is, the labour market is perceived to include members of different “races”, each of which is seen to possess a range of different skills and abilities which distinguish that group as a supposed “race”” (132.) Further more, “most whites believe that if blacks and other minorities would just stop thinking about the past, work hard, and complain less (particularly about racial discrimination), then Americans of all hues could “all get along”” ( Bonilla-Silva, 1.) Although the inequality and the racial conflict are the issue still presenting everyday, even now, most white people still believe it is something already occurred, and no longer exist. The concept Bonilla-Silva mentioned above is one of the factor that the black and the Hispanic people are having harder time to achieve their goal, their dream, and to be considering as a successful person. The society refuse to give equal opportunity to the colored people as the society believes the white people are having greater professional skill and ability over the colored people (Cesari.) Not only it is harder for the colored people to success, but also it makes the colored people often fall into the lower social class.
However, just as not all the whites recognized the racial conflict nowadays, but also the colored people. They are not likely to try to change their living status, probably due to lack of hope, or lack of opportunity. Queen and Gruener have observed, “[the black and Hispanic people] appear to accept their situation without feeling, or at least without expectation of change.” In addition, as they continue, “whether they are really apathetic or merely inarticulate is hard to tell. At all events, they make little if any effort to alter their conditions of life. This general group of reactions seems to involve recognition of white superiority. Sometimes it includes imitation of the white people. The urge to be like white folk manifests itself variously, in the seeking of a mate who is lighter colored than oneself, dreaming of being white, and , in some cases, attempting to pass as white” (25.)
One of the examples that is an evident to Queen and Gruener’s observation is from Soto’s story of his childhood. As a little Mexican boy lived on an ordinary block of mostly working class people, knew the difference between the rich and the poor, and also the relationships between the people in different race. He had a sense of the white people are more success than the people in his race. He saw white families on TV as he describes “there were no beatings, no rifts in the family,” he continues, “they wore bright clothes; toys tumbled from their closets…they hurried through the day making friends and gobs of money, returning home to a warmly lit living room, and then dinner” (29.) The image of such a wonderful family left Soto an impression of the social differences between upper class and lower class, and in order to be happy, he must be one of the people in the upper class (Soto.); the definition of happiness thus becomes the definition of success as well as what a person should be pursuing. Further more, Soto tried to convince his family to change in order to make the upper social class families accept his family when he mentioned, “I tried to convince them that if we improved the way we looked we might get along better in life. White people…might not hat us so much.” (30) He not only understood the differences of social classes, but also understood that the most important element was to make the upper class people accept his family in order to achieve his dream – to be successful and to be happy.
Reason for the racism is clear and easy according to Brown, “… it was natural for people to prefer to live among “their own kind”, and therefore to discriminate against those not considered pat of that community.” (61) In our natural beings, we are likely to grouping ourselves and discriminate other group in order to survive back in the old days. Even such jungle grouping method of living style is no longer apply to most of the society today, especially U.S., the nature is still within all of us. However, there more reasons people can study into. One of the reasons is due to the dissatisfaction of people’s lives.
Recall to what Parrillo claimed and similar to what Smedley has analyzed, that frustration is the result of the lack of resources, rewards, in one’s standing of living in comparison with those of others in the society. In another words, people are frustrated when they are dissatisfied. “Frustrated people may easily strike out against the perceived cause of their frustration. However, this reaction may not be possible because the true source of the frustration is often too nebulous to be identified or too powerful to act against” (Parrillo, 511.) As a result, people release this frustration on the colored people by discriminating against them. Whites often blame colored people as a way out of their negative feelings (Warren.) They think they are dissatisfied with their lives due to the presence of the colored people. Thus, the conflict between whites and the colored people, especially blacks, deepens.
Conflicts in society are often hard problems to solve because of the negative concepts, which are often passed down to the other generations from parents (Warren.) In such an example of the socialization process, individuals acquire the values, attitudes beliefs, and perceptions of their culture or subculture (Parrillo.) This includes religion, nationality, and social class (Cesari.) The conflicts with races in society are culturally based instead of individually based. If a person developed negative attitudes about colored people from his or her parents, when he or she becomes an adult, they will take actions against colored people. But they might not realize the reason for these actions and feelings, because they were instilled at a young age (Parrillo, 515.)
Many people have the tendency to put other people down in order to lift up themselves, the upper class, will keep a low profile and enclose the resources that exist until they decide someone from the outside circle is allowed to join (Terkel.) Eventually, the colored people are often the target for such inequality. Not only they are more likely to be exclude from the group they are in, such as job or social group, also more likely to be pressed downward regarding to the bottom of the rank. However, what if the colored individual is one of the upper social classman? The situation will not change dramatically. Many minorities plays against within the individual of their own group, according to Cesari, that even the people from the same country also plays against each other. The competition is even harsher when the two individual’s benefit conflict, which in another words, if two are against each other for resources and wealth, they will be against each other regardless of the background or which racial group the individual is coming from. Such conflict is certainly not a desirable issue to occur when our goal is to create an utopian society. However, as long as people discriminate each other, such issue is difficult to avoid and solve.
The definition of success of society today is more inclined to material and career success instead of spiritual happiness. Regarding material success, reality is much crueler than people expect. Materialism and capitalism lead people to not caring of others; such that people will try to get whatever they want without of thinking others since the wealth they gain is what they believe they “deserve.” However, such social system and ideology of materialism and capitalism are the core issue of how the society shape today: gap or rich and poor, discrimination, social class structure. The line in between “materialism” and “greedy” is very blurry when comes to define it. Not only both are trying to gather all the wealth and material as one’s best, but also both are perusing something that is physically presenting. For example, open a fashion magazine, over half of the volume is about the advertisements of some expensive brands and what is their newest products. Also, through media, people are falling into the replacement marketing trap the businesspeople create to let the consumers to buy their product. However, the effect replacement marketing is wider than superficial effect and it plants into people’s hearts. People believe the material they are going to consume is going to make them to be who they want to be. They become more confident and feel better about themselves. However, in order for them to enjoy the grace the material bring to them, they have to work harder to preserve their resources as well to take over other people’s resources in order to gain their own wealth. Thus, people become materialism, and further more, they become greedy.
Many people are not rich, but they are happy. This is a myth that many upper social class people do not understand. How can one be poor but happy? This statement seems to be contradiction but it is not. “Poor” is a word of how the individual’s economy or monetary mean; it means without money when it is under the monetary situation. Happiness is a state or mind: satisfaction, and enjoyment. One of course can be poor and happy, since it means two different states. Success in a spiritual way is a path to satisfaction. One can be success or fail, but it is not depend on other people nor the society, but how one is going to learn, and how he or she is grow though every day lives. One doesn’t need to be rich to be happy, but satisfied what he or she has, and the enjoyment he or she receive and create from the environment and one self. The happiness is what the most important thing, people often ignore the importance of the state of mind. The mind gives people courage to face every day challenge, it makes people laugh and cry; it is what makes people feel alive. One can achieve the spiritual success only if he or she wants to from the depth of his or her heart.
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